Prambanan, Part II

Sun Zenith Events
and the Churning of the Milk Ocean

At Angkor's latitude of 13.41 degrees North, the number of days between the two 'sun zenith' events each year equals 113 days.  During the late 13th century CE, the envoy of the Chinese emperor Chou Ta-kuen visited the city of Angkor Thom and wrote the following description of the city's gates. 

"Outside the walls stretches a great moat, across which access to the city is given by massive causeways. Flanking the causeways on each side are fifty-four divinities resembling war-lords in stone, huge and terrifying.

"All five gates are similar. The parapets of the causeway are of solid stone, carved to represent nine-headed serpents. The fifty-four divinities grasp the serpents with their hands, seemingly to prevent their escape.

"Above each gate are grouped five gigantic heads of Buddha, four of them facing the four cardinal points of the compass, the fifth head, brilliant with gold, holds a central position." (16)

Located along Cambodia's northeast border with Thailand, Preah Vihear dates back to the era of Angkor's founding king, Jayavarman II, who proclaimed his independence from Javanese rule in 802 CE. There is evidence to suggest that this temple constructed by one of the sons of Angkor's founding ruler. The temple was later renovated by King Suryavarman I ("Protected by the Sun") during his reign in the mid-eleventh century.

Located on Cambodia's northwest border with Thailand, Banteay Chhmar was constructed during the late-twelfth century CE by the same Buddhist king who was responsible for building the city of Angkor Thom, King Jayavarman VII. Like the walled city of the ancient Khmer capital, the temple of Banteay Chhmar features identical four-faced gateways, together with the images of the 54 Devas and Asuras who are engaged in the churning of the Sea of Milk. In addition, a lintel over one of the temple's doorways features a bas-relief of the churning of the Milk Sea.

An inscription was discovered at this particular site that commemorates the actions of four brave soldiers who lost their lives while defending the son of King Jayavarman VII. Two of the soldiers died while fending off the blows of a traitor called Bharata Rahu, who the inscription names after the eclipse demon who periodically tries to swallow the Sun and the Moon. The other two died during the prince's military expedition to the kingdom of Champa in what is today southern Vietnam. They fought their way to the prince's side and then threw themselves to the front in order to protect the king's son.

There is yet one more ancient construction located along this line of latitude that is worthy of our consideration: the Thai capital of Ayudhya, a name that leads us back to the Ramayana. This site is also the very place to which the Thais undoubtedly brought those golden heads that they had sacked from Angkor Thom during the 14th century.

Sun Zenith Events in Central Java

At Prambanan, the main temple square is surrounded by a second enclosure containing a total of 224 smaller temples called Perwaras (bridesmaids). Scenes from Vishnu's incarnation as Rama occupy the pivotal point of the surrounding buildings, which if the composer of the Old Javanese Ramayana is to be believed, once held the glittering statues of the devas and asuras responsible for the Churning of the Sea of Milk.

In addition to occupying the central location for the entire complex, the Shiva temple's function as the pivot point of the architectural plan is further reinforced by the discovery of gold foil symbols in a shaft beneath this structure. At least three of these items can be interpreted as emblems associated with the Churning of the Milk Sea as it is expressed in the bas-reliefs at Angkor Wat: a tortoise, an eight-spoked chakra, and a serpent.

Like many other temple compounds in the area, Prambanan's architectural plan consists of three distinct areas that archaeologists call "yards." No permanent structures are in evidence in the outermost enclosure of "Yard I," but Yard II was designed to contain the 224 perwara temples, and Yard III contains the monument's remaining 16 structures.  Likewise, Borobudur was laid out to conform with a similar tripartite plan, in which the stories pertaining to the Buddha Sakyamuni are delineated by the 208 Buddha statues that occupy the niches of the outermost walled perimeter and first gallery, the Gandavyuha stories encompass an area occupied by the 224 Buddha statues of the second, third and fourth gallery enclosures, and  the monument's summit supports the three round terrace platforms with their 72 stupas and Buddha statues.  

The 72 statues at the monument's core may also have a potential significance with regards to another solar cycle that directly follows the sun zenith event that occurs each October, when the sun's daily progress in the southern direction arrives back at Borobudur's latitude for the first time since the previous March equinox. This celestial event is directly followed by a 72-day period that ends when the rising Sun completes its journey to the south, and once again begins its annual journey to the north at the completion of the December solstice period.  

The Legend of Watu Gunnung

We earlier saw how the Kakawin poets of Java metaphorically transformed their home island into places that corresponded with the locations of episodes from Indian epic poems such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Java's magical transformation into the island of Lanka is further reinforced by a local tradition that readily identified Ravana, the Lord of Lanka, with an indigenous Javanese deity called Watu Gunnung ("Mountain Stone"). Although the surviving references that support such an identification only appear in texts that were written down long after the conclusion of central Javanese period, scholars such as Wilhelm Stutterheim believed that Javanese sources such as the Serat Kanda and the Rama Keling accurately represent far earlier traditions.

According to the Serat Kanda, the Hindu solar deity Vishnu, his consort Sri and the King of the naga serpents Vasuki had all incarnated in human form as Rama, Sinta (Sita) and Lesmana (Laksmana), respectively. Their appearance on Earth was for the purpose of opposing the Lord of Lanka Ravana, who the composer of the Serat Kanda identifies as an incarnation of the indigenous Javanese character Watu Gunnung. (17)

The Balinese version of this legend begins when Sinta becomes pregnant after she dreaming of her encounter with a holy man. In due course Sinta gives birth to a son.

One day after the child had become unruly, the mother lost her composure and struck the young boy on the top of the head, which is an unforgivable act in southern Asia due to the belief that the crown of the head serves as the body's main connection to heaven. Upset by his mother's indiscretion, the boy decided to run away to live on a distant mountain top.

While meditating in a tree, the boy obtained  the magic powers that eventually enabled him to overthrow the king of Giling Wesi and become that kingdom's new monarch, where he was known as Watu Gunnung ("Mountain Stone") a name that brings to mind the large number of prehistoric mountaintop sites in Indonesia which feature early megalithic structures. It is generally agreed among anthropologists that these sites represent the remains of an indigenous religion that must have existed in the islands prior to the arrival of visitors from the Indian subcontinent.

Despite her best efforts, Sinta was unable to find her son anywhere. Vowing to continue her search until she achieved her goal, the mother and her sister Landep eventually arrived in the kingdom of Giling Wesi. Despite their advanced age, the two women were still quite lovely.

Unaware that the two women were his mother and sister, it was love at first sight when King Watu Gunnung first laid eyes on them and so it came to pass that he married them both. In the course of time, the union of the king with his two favorite consorts produced a total of twenty-seven sons.

One day when Sinta noticed a scar on the top of the king's head, her discovery made her realize that the king was none other than her missing son. She also realized that the only way for the royal family to to avoid heaven's punishment for having committed the crime of incest was for King Watu Gunnung to become a god himself.

Going before the king, Sinta revealed her startling discovery, and then urged her son to use all his magic powers to marry Lord Vishnu's wife, the goddess Sri, and thereby become a deity himself. When the goddess Sri spurned Watu Gunnung's offer of marriage, the king and his army mounted an assault on heaven itself. It was only after Vishnu had discovered the secret of Watu Gunnung's magical powers that he was able to defeat the king's army and slaughter the offending monarch.

After the battle had been concluded, Vishnu decreed that the twenty-seven sons of Watu Gunnung would be put to death, one at a time, at seven day intervals. Upon receiving the news, Sinta wept for seven days and was then admitted into heaven. According to the legend, Vishnu decided to perpetuate the memory of his victory by naming the seven-day weeks of the Wuku calendar after Sinta, Landep, their 27 sons and Watu Gunnung. (18)

The legend of Watu Gunnung contains several symbolic elements that potentially represent the displacement of an indigenous, lunar-based Javanese calendar by the luni-solar calendrical system of India. As we just saw, however, the sun-god Vishnu's calendrical victory involves the assimilation of certain elements of the earlier lunar system of time-reckoning. The result of that assimilation is the Javanese Pawukon or Wuku--a  calendrical system unique to island southeast Asia that consists of 30 seven-day weeks representing a total of 210 days.

Under the Javanese Wuku system, the twenty-seven sons of Watu Gunnung each preside over one of the calendar's seven-day weeks. It is not unreasonable to suggest that the twenty-seven sons represent the twenty-seven asterisms of Hindu astronomy, which act to define the celestial ecliptic plane along which the Sun, the Moon and the planets transverse the heavenly vault. In addition, the three additional seven-day weeks that the Wuku assigns to Sinta, Landep and Watu Gunnung may refer to other aspects of monthly lunar cycle, which have whole-day periods of 28, 29 and 30 days, respectively.

We know that at least a portion of the Wuku system was in use during the era in which both Prambanan and Borobudur were built because the date lines of the vast majority of inscriptions include references to Wuku calendar dates. However, no record has ever been discovered to tell us anything about the origin of this indigenous calendrical system.

Nevertheless, an investigation into the very structure of the Wuku may be of some assistance in determining the Wuku's providence. It would not be unreasonable to expect that Vishnu's (Rama's) victory over Watu Gunnung (Ravana) might embody a solar time cycle in one form or another.

The chart that appears below superimposes the 210 days of the Wuku system over the portion of the solar year that begins with occurrence of the February 25th Sun Zenith event during the middle of the ninth century CE. In this particular case, the seven-day week (Krulut) of the Wuku calendar over which Vishnu presides also coincides with the June (17/18) solstice period, when the sun arrives at its northern limit of travel along the eastern horizon.

According to a Javanese inscription that dates to the year 850 CE, the sun's arrival at its northernmost limit of travel in mid-June is called the "sun returning to its home." The description not only may refer to the sun's return to Mount Meru--the abode of the gods at the Earth's north celestial pole, but also may also be a reference to the fact that the constellation Gemini, which 'houses' the sun at the time of the June (17/18) solstice during the mid-ninth century CE. In the Hindu astronomical texts, is described as having the shape of a house in certain Hindu astronomy texts.

The first seven-day week that the Wuku assigns to Watu Gunnung's son Gunnung Wukir coincides with the March equinox (16/17). Perhaps it is only a coincidence, but the name Gunnung Wukir is also the name of the hill upon which King Sanjaya installed a linga in on October 6, 732 CE. The final seven-day week of the Wuku calendar, which represents Watu Gunnung himself, coincides with the vernal equinox that occurs each September (18/19) and marks the beginning of Spring for all locations south of the Earth's equator.

The dates for the equinoxes and the June solstice (central Java, Mid-ninth century CE) toggle back and forth between two different days, depending on the year in question. This one day change is due to the fact that the solar year consists of 365.25 days rather than merely 365 whole days. Our modern calendars add an extra "leap day" every four years to correct for this.

Based on the hypothesis tendered above, Vishnu's solar "road to victory" would begin with the February 25th sun zenith event, which signals the first day during the sun's northern progress that any portion of the disc of the sun passes to the north of the latitudes occupied by central Java. The proposed cycle reached its apex during Krulut--the Wuku week presided over by Vishnu when the Sun would have reached its northernmost limit of travel at the time of the June solstice. The end of the proposed cycle would have occurred during the week of the vernal equinox each September, which marks the final day of the annual solar cycle during which the sun is at all times north of central Java's latitudes. Altogether, the period that begins with February sun zenith event and ends with the September equinox endures for a total of 208 days.

On Java, the vernal equinox marks the beginning of the Sun's descent into the latitudes to the south of the island, the southernmost outpost of Greater India's civilizing influence. This is the realm of darkness that the Hindu scriptures say is ruled by the forces of darkness that the Hindu scriptures call the asuras. The descent of the Sun into the south culminates on with the December solstice period, when the Sun reaches its southern limit of travel along the eastern horizon and reverses its course to begin its re-ascent to the north. The Sun does not totally depart the island's southern latitudes until the following February at the time of the next Sun Zenith event.

As if the Sun Had Fallen into the Temple

...Dispelling darkness owing to
the blinding splendor of his head crest,
Which is illuminated by the flames of the golden lotus within,
Even as his excellent retinue shines forth
With a radiance comparable to the Moon's cool rays..." (19)

The stanzas quoted above form part of an inscription that was discovered within the environs of a Buddhist temple complex that is located about two kilometers to the northeast of Candi Prambanan. Short inscriptions have been found on site that also tell us that the construction of Candi Plaosan was sponsored in part by Rakai Pikatan, the same Javanese ruler who is credited with the building of Candi Prambanan.

The composer's description of an image with solar attributes that appeared as if it had magically fallen into this temple is potentially significant because the temple's architectural plan consists of divisions that may also have been intended to correspond with various calendrical systems.

In the northern half of the complex (Candi Plaosan Lor), the central courtyard contains two nearly identical shrines, each of which has three interior cells with upper as well as lower tiers. These two shrines are surrounded by a total of 174 smaller structures (58 rectangular buildings and 116 stupas). In addition, to the north of this yard is a second area that consists of a large platform that once served as the foundation for a wooden structure that has long since vanished. It was also surrounded by several tiers of small shines, the precise number of which has yet to be determined, but certainly more than 60 and perhaps as many as 78.

The 174 structures and the two main temples in the portion of the courtyard to the south of the large raised platform may have been intended to numerically combine in conformance with the luni-solar calendar. For example, when the three gateways of the central courtyard are included in the count, a total of 177 structures srround the two viharas -- a symbolic reference to the lunar half year of 177 days. Moreover, each of the two main shrines has an interior area that consists of three cellas. Together with the surrounding yard of 116 stupas, 58 rectangular buildings and 3 gateways, the six cellas of the two main temples would correspond with a six-month northern progress of the sun along the local horizon, which consists of 183 days. 

In the temples of Angkor in Cambodia, two subsidiary temples were usually constructed to either side of the temple's main axis, one in which rites were performed during the "bright half" (suklapaksa) of the lunar month, and other in which rites were performed during the "dark half" (krishnapaksa) of the lunar month.

Plaosan Lor's two main shrines feature internal structures that mirror one another, which suggests that they may also have been used in an alternating fashion. In this case, however, the rites would have moved between the six interior cellas according to a calendral schedule, either governed by the lunar month, or by moving from cella to cella in accordance with the sun's annual journey along the eastern horizon from south to north (uttarayana) and then from north to south (daksinayana) over the course of the annual solar cycle

Both temples are wholly equal in terms of their construction and only differ with regards to the remaining bas-reliefs. The southern temple exclusively featuring male portraits may have been a monastic residence from men and the northern temple with the female portraits serving as monastic quarters for women. (J.L. Moens T.B.G. 1921, p. 584).

Perhaps we are only dealing with mere coincidence, but it should also be pointed out that Candi Plaosan and Borobudur form an alignment with respect to the sun's rising and setting at the time of the December solstice period, when the sun reverses its course and begins its northern progress along Java's eastern horizon. From the perspective of an observer stationed on Borobudur's summit at the time of sunrise during  the solstice period each December, the sun appears to rise directly out of the position on the horizon where Candi Plaosan is located. Then at sunset on the June solstice, an observer stationed at Candi Plaosan and gazing toward Borobudur, the sunset would have appeared "to have fallen into the temple as if by a miracle," but in this instance the temple receiving the sun would be Borobudur not Plaosan.

Whether this alignment was the intention of the respective architects of these two temples is not known and may never be known with certainty. However, there is a figure carved on the base of the Buddhist temple of Candi Mendut, who has his folded hands raised high over his head in a gesture of extreme reverence. He faces the southeast, the direction of sunrise at the time of the December solstice. Is he greeting the sun as the solar disc begins his return journey to central Java's latitudes? For comparison purposes, a bas-relief from Angkor re reproduced below, which shows  human figures (right side) making similar gestures when paying reverence to the solar deity Vishnu (center). With respect to this figure at Mendut, Krom believed that this gesture of respect was intended for the large standing Bodhisattva image at the center of the relief directly above in the exterior partition of the main cella. But since Krom had determined the identity of the deities in the Mendut relief by determining each one's assigned directional "wind region" then homage rendered to the wind region of the deity would thus be the equivalent to granting it to its "mirror" on the partition walls above.

A bas-relief from the Bayon temple at Angkor

As Above, So Below

Mere citation of a few examples to suggest a correspondence between the numerical symbolism found in ancient temples and discernible solar cycles does not in itself constitute proof that any building site had been selected for the purpose of mirroring events in the celestial realm. At the same time, however, it should be noted that early archaeologists and scholars--by-and-large ignorant of the occurrence of sun zenith events--never attempted to explore the possibilities. One goal  of this article is to provide enough material to inspire others  to further explore the possibilities.

With regards to central Java at the turn of the ninth century CE, archaeologists have speculated that the many changes in temple designs that were implemented at that time must have been inspired by an influx of new concepts from India. However, scholars have subsequently had limited luck in linking the complex designs of temples such as Borobudur, Prambanan, Plaosan and Sewu with any possible prototypes to be found on the Asian mainland. 

The only hypothesis that has been tendered to date for explaining Prambanan's architectural layout is Lokesh Chandra's suggestion that the 224 small temples at Prambanan "...may represent the 224 universes of the cosmological system of the Saiva Siddhanta. While these peripheral temples may correspond with to the Cakravada peaks, the eight temples in the inner court may be the eight pinnacles of the Manasa mountain."

It is unfortunate that Chandra did not elect to amplify upon his proposal by citing the requisite references as well as tendering a possible explanation based on Indian temple prototypes. Moreover, his hypothesis may have a limited application when it comes to applying it to the layout for Buddhist monuments such as Borobudur. (20)

Another purpose of this article has been to suggest that the new concepts that the Javanese acquired from India were all based on the premise that the temple must mirror the heavens as they were perceived locally. The hypothesis would not only account for the lack of similar models on the Indian subcontinent--where other celestial conditions prevailed--but also suggest possible methods for further investigation. For example, temple sites in India and on the island of Sri Lanka could be re-examined to see if the structures incorporated numerical symbolism that mirrored the heavens that were observable at the latitudes at which each site is location.

Sri Lanka in particular is of interest because of its possible associations with the building of Borobudur. I tracked down the latitude/longitude for Sri Lanka's ancient capital as well as the site of the Abhayagiri, after which the Sailendra named their own monastery on the top of the Rato Boko hill overlooking Prambanan. In this instance, the occurrence of sun zenith events at the Abhayagiri monastery in Sri Lanka during the late 8th century CE may help to explain why the number 72 is of such paramount significance in Borobudur's design. For example, at the original Abhayagiri, the sun zenith event occurred at local noon on 4/8/803, 72 days before the solstice on June 18, and was followed by the second sun zenith event on 8/29/803 say 72 days later. This was more or less the state of affairs throughout the late eighth and early ninth centuries CE.

As the Hindu scholar Stella Kramrisch one observed, the Indian science of architecture requires that “...building is begun under favorable stars. They are consulted when the ground is taken possession of and when the rite of depositing the Germ of the temple is performed. The regents of the planets and the stars have their allocation in the diagram of the temple and their images are carved on its walls. By them are regulated the measurement of the whole building and its parts; the life of the donor and the age of the temple too.” (21)

FOOTNOTES

(16) The Customs of Cambodia by Chou Ta-Kuan, The Siam Society, Bangkok, Third Edition, 1993,  p. 2.

(17) See Rama-Legends and Rama-Reliefs in Indonesia by Wilhelm F. Stutterheim, pp. 56, 60, 61, 213

(18) After the account given in Island of Bali by Miguel Covarrubias, pp. 314-315.

(19) After the translation by de Casparis in Prasati Indonesia, volume II, Bandung, 1956.

(20) Introduction to Rama-Legends and Rama -Reliefs Indonesia by Wilhelm Stutterheim, p. xiii.

(21) The Hindu Temple by Stella Kramrich, Volume I, p. 10.

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