As previously discussed in Part One of this article series, the temple architects of central Java employed ratio formulas to create three major divisions with their temple plans called the foot, body and head of the temple. According to Professor Parmono Atmadi, all of central Java's temples featuring a single cella fronted by an entranceway or vestibule were based on the ratio formula of 4:6:9, including Candi Pawon and Candi Mendut.

Figure IV-2: Candi Mendut's Foot, Body and Head.

To the modern visitor, Candi Mendut appears to have a relatively flat rooftop, but this is merely the result of an incomplete restoration. Figure IV-2 above, which is based on a drawing by Theodore van Erp, more accurately reflects the pyramidal nature of the original design.

Candi Mendut originally was merely one building in a large temple complex that was surrounded by a brick wall measuring about 110 by 50 m. Today, however, the only other standing structures at this site consist of a few small memorial stupas that are located in the general vicinity of the yard's entranceway, which that is today located on the northwest side of the monument. During the eighth and ninth centuries, however, this was probably located on the southwest side of the yard near where a huge banyan tree can be seen today. 

The Candi Mendut that modern visitors now see is constructed on top of a 3.6m-high stone basement that measures 24m (NE/SW) x 30m (NW/SE) at ground level, including the front-projecting porch and staircase. The porch extends outward by 4.35m from the northwest face of the temple's central square that is in turn fronted by a set of steps and a short walkway that ends in a staircase at ground level, which protrudes from the porch by 3.5 m. During the temple's restoration, archaeologists discovered that the building contained within it an even older structure made of brick that probably dates from the late eighth century CE.

The interior of the central cell at Candi Mendut has the form of a trapezoid that measures 7.3m in the front, 6.85m on the sides and 6.8 m along the back wall. In the vertical plane, the interior of the cella features a pyramid-like cone comprises of 37 stone layers that rises to a height of about 14 m above the chamber's floor, which itself lies 65cm below the level of the vestibule. The darkened room contains three magnificent statues--each of which was carved from a single block of stone on site, with the walls as well as the ceiling of the temple constructed around them afterwards. This is evident from the fact that the mammoth stone images would have been too big to fit through the cella's narrow doorway. (2)

Figure IV-3: The general layout of Candi Mendut, top view.

By all accounts, the sculptor has succeeded in creating a dynamic arrangement that has fascinated visitors ever since the monument was dug out of a mound of volcanic ash during the early 19th century.

“This group, although being three separate sitting figures with closed eyes, has something especially dramatic; as it has been represented here, it is animated, and it is active, the observer can feel it,” wrote the Dutch painter H. N. Sieburgh, who arrived in Java in 1836. (3)

The centrally located Buddha image is flanked to either side by the statues of two bodhisattvas. The three characters are also linked together by the fact that all three have been positioned on top of a raised platform that is 65cm high. The image of the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara is located on the northeast wall of the cella to the Buddha's right (our left). He is identified by the small figure of the Jina Amitabha that he wears in his hair.

On the southwestern wall of the cella to the Buddha's left (our right) is the image of a second bodhisattva who the archaeologist A. J. Bernet Kempers believed must be Vajrapani due to the figure's slightly demonic, threatening expression as well as his position to the left of the Buddha, "...where any demon should be!" The somewhat menacing nature of his arched eyebrows and the slight sneer of his lips accord well with Vajrapani's role as an ancient Yaksha figure who only later was assimilated into the Mahayana Buddhist pantheon, where he serves as the guardian of temples and the protector of the Buddha. (4)

Kempers' tentative identification of this image with the "Vajra Holder" bodhisattva Vajrapani is reinforced by the organization of the bas-reliefs that appear on the outside walls of the central cella. Here the architect has presented a total of eight bodhisattvas in  niches located next to the eight corners of the square cella's exterior in conformance with a well-known, mandala-like pattern that has been found throughout southern Asia called the "Eight Great Bodhisattvas."

At the center of the three exterior partition walls without doorways there are also larger bas-reliefs, two of which present the images of goddesses and the third, which is directly in back of the interior's Buddha statues, is a large standing  with four arms who is usually identified as a form of Avalokitesvara in his role as the Lord of the three Worlds following the parinirvana of the Buddha Sakyamuni. As Kempers rightly observed, the mystery world on the inside of Candi Mendut is reflected in the organization and identity of the external reliefs. The external image of Avalokiteshvara is linked with the internal image. Likewise, the four-armed Avalokitesvara, who rules over the current world age, is the outward expression of the temple's central deity. On the other side of Mahalokesvara is the image of Vajrapani, who in the bas-relief can be identified by the vajra that he carries with him. The relationship that this relief has with the unidentified bodhisattva within the central cella parallels the external/internal connection between the two images of Avalokitesvara.

The thrones for all three figures are adorned with vertical stacks that feature the carved images of an elephant (bottom), a lion (middle) and a makara (top). Behind each of the image heads is a spade-shaped halo. In the case of the centrally-located Buddha image, however, the halo is a modern reconstruction that may not reflect the artist's original design but on the other hand does seem to fit the application. Other restorative effects that are less appropriate include the construction of replacement makaras and the placement of a small relief on the base of the altar inside the central cella.  

The front foot of each bodhisattva image extends forward so that its toes point to the front and center of the cella where  worshippers must have once congregated, close enough to allow them to reach out and touch the feet with their hands. By contrast, the  feet of the seated Buddha image rest on a stone lotus cushion that is well beyond the reach of worshippers. If Borobudur's "extended foot" was indeed meant to terminate at Candi Mendut, then we would need to look no further than the feet of this statue for the its termination point.

The striking symmetry of the arrangement binds the three figures together into a triad. The central Buddha figure sits in an attitude that is sometimes characterized as 'European.' He has both hands raised in the preaching gesture (dharmachakra mudra), whereas the side figures raise only one, the left and right, respectively, at the side of the folded leg. The Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara has one hand down that displays the vara-mudra, while his left is raised in vitarka-mudra. The Bodhisattva Vajrapani's raised hand displays the jnana-mudra, which is another gesture of discussing religious matters, while his left rests upon a supporting lotus cushion. (5)

The original superstructure of Candi Mendut supported a large central stupa at the monument's apex, surrounded by rings of 8, 16, and 24 smaller stupas, reproducing the central core of the vastupurusa mandala at Borobudur's summit (See "Essence of Buddhahood, Part Three"). This particular geometrical distribution of elements also is reflected in the design of the Buddhist temple of Candi Plaosan Kidul, which is located some 35 kilometers to the southeast of Borobudur. (6)

In Angkor Wat: Space, Time and Kingship, author Eleanor Mannikka has suggested that the architect of Angkor Wat in Cambodia had used a compressed version of the vastupurusa mandala that only had 49 squares in which to represent the diagram's requisite solar and stellar deities, a practice that was not observed in India.  The Javanese architects of Candi Mendut and Candi Plaosan Kidul may have also employed the same abbreviated version of the vastupurusa mandala for implementing their temple designs.   (7)

The implications of Mannikka's solar attribution for this diagram are considerable, because this is precisely what the measurements of this inner core of Borobudur's summit reflect. At Candi Mendut, the promenade path around the central cella has also been precisely defined in solar terms, for the distance of one complete revolution around the structure, from the first step onto the singular staircase, to the last step out of the monument, equals 365.24 talas. Moreover, this pathway has two discrete segments: the up/down staircase dimension equals 2 x 29.5 talas, a reference to the lunar month, and the remainder of one circuit around the promenade equals 306.288 talas.

Candi Pawon and Candi Mendut are the only central Javanese temples that do not face the cardinal directions East or West, a situation that also applies to the Ratu Boko Gate. Instead, the architectural plans for both of these temples are oriented along a NW/SE axis, with each temple’s singular doorway facing the northwest. In addition, both temples feature a single, centrally located cella that is fronted by a vestibule. In both cases, the projection of this vestibule from the doorway leading into the cella acts to block the rays of the sun from gaining direct entry for much of the year. (8)

"Atop the entrance to the main cella (at Candi Mendut) a triangular window--visible in early photographs taken after reconstruction--was made instead of an invisible relieving arch to lighten the weight burdening the entrance frame. It had to be bricked up later on to intercept mysterious but entirely unreal rays of light passing through the window into an interior that formerly--when the porch was still intact--must have been very dark, much darker than now." (9)

At Candi Mendut, which has a singular doorway that faces the NW (301.5 Deg. W of the N line, according to J. L. Moens-T.B.G.,1950), the rays of the Sun can only pass through the doorway that leads into the central cella during the late afternoons in mid- to late- June and early July. During the remainder of the year, the interior of Candi Mendut cella becomes shrouded in the womb-like atmosphere of a Buddhist cave shrine.  

Only a small portion of Candi Mendut's vestibule has been reconstructed. Under the guiding principle of modern Indonesian archaeology called anastylosis, new stones can only be added to an original structure when at least one original stone in a tier can be found to provide the defining link for determining that tier's original form. If the requisite key stones cannot be found, then the structure cannot be rebuilt even when a substantial amount of circumstantial evidence exists for determining its original form.

An illustration based on a drawing made by Theodore van Erp suggests how Candi Mendut may have looked originally. However, Van Erp abandoned his plans for reconstructing Candi Mendut’s vestibule after he realized that the required key stones were unavailable.

The long pathway that connects Borobudur with Candi Mendut  parallels the modern road between these two sites, which in all likelihood conforms with the ancient pathway that pious Buddhist worshippers once used to travel between the two sites. Using modern GPS equipment and computer software I was able to determine the precise spot on Borobudur's eastern horizon at which this pathway is directed: 83 degrees, 16 minutes, 12 seconds. Pointing toward the southern slopes of the still-active volcano Mount Merapi, the location at which this azimuth bearing intersects the local horizon currently has an altitude of just over 2 degrees. Given the fact that Merapi is an active volcano, however, the altitude of the local horizon at this point along the southern slope of the volcano may have been slightly different during the 9th century CE, when a first-to-second magnitude star helically rose in close proximity to this very point on the local horizon at the precise moment when night's curtain fell on the evening of the solstice each June.

Altair is the brightest star in the constellation Aquila, the “Eagle," which also includes the third magnitude star Tarazed and the fourth-magnitude star Alshain. In the Hindu astronomy texts, Altair is the junction star for Sravana, the "Ear," which is the twenty-first asterism or nakshatra of the series. (12)

In certain texts this asterism is also known as Ashvatta, the “Sacred Fig Tree.” The regent of this Hindu nakshatra is Vishnu, the chief of the Hindu solar deities. According to one ancient source, the stars Altair, Tarazed and Alshain represent the Three Footsteps of Vishnu’s dwarf incarnation took, which defined the three realms of the devas, human beings and the asuras. (13)

In his book "Researches into the Primitive Constellations of the Greeks, Phoenicians and Babylonians," author Robert Brown sets forth the venerable history of Altair, the “Eagle.”

“The constellation of the Eagle is especially interesting both because in this case we can trace very clearly the pre-constellational history of the sign, and because the original Euphratean name has been preserved. The Sumer-Akkadian Eagle was Alala ('The Great Spirit'), ‘the symbol of the noontide sun.’ ...Here we have the pre-constellational history of the sign, which is subsequently reduplicated in stellar form as Kakkab Idkhu, the Zammama, ‘the constellation the Eagle, i.e. the god Zammama.’ The principle star of this constellation is also called Idkhu (‘the Powerful Bird’), the Eagle, in Arabic Al Tair (‘the Great Bird’), the Altair of star maps.” (14)

In "Angkor Wat: Space, Time and Kingship," author Eleanor Mannikka proposed that at some unknown distant point during ancient times the Hindus began to identify the stellar “Eagle” of the Sumer-Akkadians with the Garuda--the celestial mount of the Hindu god Vishnu. Hindu art usually portrays the Garuda as having the head of a bird and the body of a human being. (15)

During the late fourth century CE, the constellation Aquila undoubtedly attracted the attention of stargazers when a new star, or “nova,” made an abrupt appearance in this particular star group. According to Chinese observers, the nova was as bright as the planet Venus, which under normal circumstances is the second brightest object in the night skies after the Moon.

Although Candi Mendut's base is populated with the images of pious figures that appear to have tree-like scrolls of foliage sprouting from their heads, a Garuda is also featured at the corner of the base closest to Borobudur. In order words, it lies directly in the pathway that that connects Borobudur to the eastern horizon where the star Altair formerly rose during the eighth century CE at the fall of night's curtain at the time of the June solstice, when it superbly fulfilled its role in becoming the "night-eye of the Sun. The star Altair would have certainly provided the Buddhist monks who once populated the area with a highly useful reference for accurately setting the annual calendars by which they once regulated temple ceremonies and local festivals.

Garuda appears several times in the relief panels at Borobudur. One noteworthy example appears in hidden reliefs at the foot of the monument.

"With the exception of the hell scenes, there is only a single (hidden) relief of which it can be said with certainty that it illustrates a text passage that does not occur in any of the transmitted texts. This is (the relief) which illustrates the causes of rebirth as a Garuda and a Naga. It would seem to be a most extraordinary coincidence that this theme, unaccounted for in the Karmavibhanga texts, should deal with Indonesia's favorite mythical bird, the Garuda. This heroic bird has enjoyed great popularity in Indonesia through the ages. Is its sudden and unexpected appearance in the illustrations of the Karmavibhanga an indication of a Javanese interpretation, added to the sacred texts for its local appeal? The unexpected appearance of the Garuda among the illustrations of the Karmavibhanga suggests the possibility of Javanese interpolations in that text." (16)

The “eagle” also figures in the ornamentation of several other central Javanese Candis, including the central sanctuary of the Buddhist temple Candi Sewu, which once was adorned with pairs of eagles at each of the structure’s four entrance porches.

Candi Mendut is usually regarded to be Borobudur's porch temple--the point at which celebrants once began their spiritual pilgrimage to the summit of Java's cosmic pyramid-mountain. However, there is another temple nearby that may actually have one held that distinction.

The Buddhist temple of Candi Ngawen is located approximately 4.6 kilometers due east of Candi Mendut near the town of Muntilan. It is not easy to find, partly because its location is literally all over the map in the accounts of various art historians who apparently skipped their geography classes in preference for the art room. For those who may be equipped with GPS navigators, its coordinates are 7 degrees, 36 minutes, 15 seconds South latitude; 110 degrees, 16 minutes, 20 seconds East longitude.

The temple complex consists of five shrines that have been laid out alone a N/S line with doorways that face the cardinal direction East. These five shrines may have once contained statues of the five Jinas. Two headless statues of Jina images can still be seen at this site today. However, this was not, in all probability, the original function of this temple complex.

Three of the shrines (I, III and V) appear to have been constructed later than the other two structures (II and IV). The discovery of a yoni platform nearby suggests that the temple may has originally been a Hindu temple that was later converted to Buddhism. Certain architectural elements suggest that this conversion might be connected with the construction of Borobudur and Candi Mendut. (36)

The Candi Ngawen that visitors see today bears one of the distinctive stamps of the Sailendra dynasty: makaras that have small lions standing in the mouths. Another unique feature of shrines II and IV are the standing lions that adorn each of the four corners of the two sanctuaries.

Returning our attention to Candi Mendut, a misunderstanding has taken root in the minds of certain art historians with regards to the number of niches that appear in the walls of Candi Mendut's central cella. This misunderstanding has lead a number of scholars to misrepresent the monument in their publications. These miscues are undoubtedly the result of an entry that appears in Indonesian Art, in which the author A. J. Bernet Kempers states his belief that Candi Mendut's niches had formerly contained images of the four Jinas. Elsewhere in "Indonesian Art" Kempers correctly states the number of niches to be filled but this clarifying remark has largely gone unnoticed. Nevertheless, this has resulted in the propagation of interpretive theories based that do not conform with the true state of affairs at Candi Mendut.

The text that comes the closest to describing the interior world of Candi Mendut is Java's oldest surviving Buddhist document, the Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan (SHK), which means something like The Almighty Great Path" or "The Holy Great Way." According to some scholars, the opening portion of this text dates were probably written during the reign of the Javanese ruler King Sindok, whose reign seems to have spanned the late ninth and early tenth centuries CE.

The SHK provides instructions concerning the attainment of the yogic state called the Buddha Divarupa. Although Divarupa literally means "divine form," an alternate meaning of "light body" is entirely possible as well. Since the time of the ancient Vedas of India, the Sanskrit word Deva has been associated with luminous beings. In the Hindu texts, the Devas are sometimes called the "Suras"--the Sanskrit word for "lights." As the celestial forces of light, the Suras are ever in opposition to the Asuras, those who are literally "without light." (18)

In presenting the "Almighty Great Way" for reaching heaven and final release, the SHK states that the path to heaven is immaterial and without characteristics, like the sky. Neither large nor small, white nor black, it pervades the ten directions of space. Deeper than the deepest and beyond reason, it embodies neither action nor that which acts.

The SHK instructs the followers of the "Great Way" on the method for incorporating the mystic syllables "am-ah" into their yogic practices, which are equated with the inhaling and exhaling breaths of the yogin. The SHK calls the inhaling breath the "solar body" (Suryarupa) while the exhaling breath is called the "moon body" (Candrarupa).

During meditation, the mystic syllables “am-ah” spread throughout the body of the yogin and beyond by means of nine gates or orifices. By merging the lunar and solar breaths, the yogin produces the divine knowledge that leads to the realization of the mind state of the Supreme Buddha, which the SHK calls the Divarupa. (19)

In "Ageless Borobudur," Kempers identified the parallels that exist between the interior world of Candi Mendut and a later section of the Old Javanese Sang Hyang Kamahayanikkan (SHK), which present the Buddhist triad of the Buddha Sakyamuni, Avalokitesvara and Vajrapani as the expression of the Ultimate Reality. Although scholars believe that this particular section of the text was written long after Borobudur was constructed, this does not eliminate the strong possibility that the designer of Candi Mendut and the composer of the SHK had tapped into the same vein of ancient Buddhist knowledge. Here we shall revisit the main components of the unfolding of the Abhisambodi stages according to the SHK:

The bodhisattvas Lokesvara (a form of Avalokitesvara) and Vajrapani emerge from the right and left sides of the Divarupa's body, while the Buddha Sakyamuni emerges from the front of the Supreme Buddha. The triad of Sakyamuni, Lokesavara and Vajrapani symbolize the “three jewels” (ratnatraya) of the supreme Buddha's body, speech and mind, which are equivalent to the "Three Mysteries of the Buddha" known the Nirmanakaya, the Samboghakaya, and the Dharmakaya.

Lokitesvara represents Divarupa's material body as having the form of the Sun and displaying the color red, while Vajrapani represents Divarupa’s mind in the form of the moon and having the color blue. The pattern of unfolding continues as the Jinas Aksobhya (East, blue) and Ratnasambhava (South, yellow) emanate from Lokitesvara's right and left sides, while the Jinas Amithaba (West, red) and Amoghasiddhi (North, green) emerge from the right and left sides of Vajrapani. In addition, the Buddha Vairocana--who represents the Divarupa’s speech and the color white--emerges from the Buddha Sakyamuni's mouth. Then the Jina Vairocana emits the Hindu deities Brahma, Vishnu and Isvara (a form of Shiva). Deriving their powers solely from the omniscience of Vairocana, the Hindu Trimurti create the five elements, the three worlds, the remainder of the gods and all other beings. (21)

If Candi Mendut's architect had intended to express the same pattern of unfolding that we find in the SHK, then the niches in the wall behind Avalokitesvara would have formerly housed the images of the Jinas Aksobhya and Ratnasambhava, while the two niches behind Vajrapani would have formerly held images of the Jinas Amithaba and Amoghasiddhi. Before the pattern can be completed, however, we must arrive at the identity of the shrine's main Buddha image. (22)

A small relief appears on the base of the main altar that portrays a wheel flanked by two deer--a theme that Buddhist artists often used to symbolize the Buddha Sakyamuni on the occasion of his first sermon at the Deer Park in Benares. However, considerable doubt has been raised as to whether whether this relief actually belongs at its current location.

Moens (T.B.G.) believed that this small relief would have been more correctly placed at a spot over the cella's entranceway where a short inscription of the Buddhist Creed ("Ye te...") had formerly been located. Kempers also considered the placement to be questionable:

"The carved stone decorated with two deer flanking a wheel...was found in two pieces on the grounds. It fits a Buddha throne quite well, but it is far from certain that it was correctly put on its present location." (23)

The Buddha of Candi Mendut displays the dharmachakra hand gesture that is elsewhere commonly associated with the Sakyamuni's preaching of the Deer Park Sermon. At Borobudur, however, the architect has allocated this particular mudra for the exclusive use of the Jina who occupies the monument's summit as an indicator for a preaching of a higher order. In the Borobudur relief that corresponds with the Lalitavistara's description of the Deer Park sermon, the Buddha Sakyamuni must have displayed an entirely different hand gesture, which others have assumed to be  the same mudra that is displayed by images in the 64 niches that crown the monument’s fourth gallery.

"The particular importance of this mudra...is demonstrated at the end of the relief series where the Buddha preaches the all-important First Sermon --displaying the vitarka-mudra with his right hand. Krom observes that, although the right hand (and most of the right arm) of the Buddha is broken off on this relief, the position of the left hand resting in the lap of the Buddha excludes a dharmachakra-mudra (which might have been expected). Krom also observes that the exclusion of the dharmachakra-mudra is very strange, because the text specifically mentions a "dharmachakra...." (24)

FOOTNOTES:

(1) The "Grinwich" computer program from Ontario-based Math Consultants was used to calculate the distance between the respective latitude/longitude coordinates as well as the angle of the axis connecting the two satellite shrines to Borobudur.

(2) Indonesia Heritage: Early History, p. 77.

(3) As cited in Studies in Indonesian Archaeology by Dr. F. D. K. Bosch, p. 41.

(5) Ageless Borobudur by A. J. Bernet Kempers, pp. 227-229.

(6) "The Sthandila of 49 squares has Brahma in the centre, surrounded by a triple enclosure. The border around the one square of Brahma is held by the gods, in 8 squares; the next border of 16 squares is assigned to men and the outermost border of 24 squares is occupied by Pasacas, the goblins. This triple enclosure comprising the seven times seven squares and the progression of squares from the 1 in the centre to 8 to 16 to 24 is prescribed for the immovable image of divinity (dhruvarca). The triple world in its hierarchy of gods, men and ghosts ensconce Brahma. (The seven-fold division of each, heaven, earth and the lower region, is given in detail in the Vishnu Purana, II, chapters II-VII)." (See The Hindu Temple by Stella Kramrich, Volume I, p. 60.)

(7) Angkor Wat: Space, Time and Kingship by Eleanor Mannikka. Copyright 1996, pp.

(8) The archaeologist Jacques Dumarcay believed that Candi Mendut's vestibule must have been added to the original structure sometime after 830 CE because in his view the vestibule incorporates building techniques that were not otherwise in evidence in central Java until that time. Since the building displays many other affinities with the same architectural principles that once governed construction at Borobudur, we must regard Dumarcay's timeline with caution as this particular temple could represent an early trial of new architectural technique that were subsequently applied to later monuments.

"The moldings (at Candi Mendut) deserve special notice, displaying the typical Sailendra profile with their sequence of plinth, S-shaped ogee, and semicircular molding. Below the semicircular molding there is a row of dentils comparable to those on the original, now-hidden base of Candi Borobudur. The similarity with Candi Borobudur extends to the sculpture and the reliefs, all of which are of the highest artistic quality."

See "Indonesian Architecture of the Classical Period" by Dr. R. Soekmono, The Sculpture of Indonesia, p. 75.

(9) Ageless Borobudur by A. J. Bernet Kempers, p. 217

(10) Ageless Borobudur by A. J. Bernet Kempers, p. 217

(11) The Flower Ornament Scripture: A Translation of the Avatamsaka Sutra translated by Thomas Clearly. Shambala Publications, Inc. Copyright 1984, page 371.

(12) The author determined the azimuth angle for this particular alignment by first calculating the respective latitude and longitude coordinates for both Borobudur (7, 36, 29 S; 110, 12, 14 E) and Candi Mendut (7, 36, 18 S; 110, 13, 48 E) and then using an engineering computer software program developed by Math Consultants of Munster, Ontario to calculate the distance between these two points on the surface of the earth (2,901 km) as well as the alignment’s corresponding azimuth angle (83, 16, 12).

In addition, the calculations compensated for the 2-degree altitude of the local horizon along the azimuth line of the connecting pathway. In 802 CE, for example, Altair’s azimuth would have equaled the azimuth of the connecting path (83, 16, 12) when the star reach an altitude on the local horizon 2, 03, 23 at 6:45 PM local time on June 17. This would have occurred 1 hr 15 minutes after sunset, or less than two minutes after the precise time that the sky transitioned from twilight to total darkness (6:43:17 PM local time).

(13) See the Surya Siddhanta translated by Ebenezer Burgess, p. 226. Also see Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning by Richard Hinckley Allen. Copyright 1899, p. 59.

(14) As cited in Angkor Wat: Space, Time and Kingship by Eleanor Mannikka. Copyright 1996, p. 60.

(15) Angkor Wat: Space, Time and Kingship by Eleanor Mannikka. Copyright 1996, pp. 60 - 62.

(16) p. 13

(17) Agama Tirtha by C. Hooykaas, pp. 80-81. Given the other previously noted correspondences between Borobudur and the ritual of the altar as outlined in the Satapatha Brahmana, it is worth mentioning that this text often compares the Vedic fire altar with the body of a bird. “Prajapati was desirous of gaining these world. He saw this bird-like body, the Fire-altar: he fashioned it and thereby gained this (terrestrial) world. He saw a second bird-like body, the (chant of the) Great rite: he fashioned it and thereby gained the air. He saw a third bird-like body, the Great Litany: he fashioned it, and thereby gained the sky.” The text goes on to identify the three bodies of earth, air and sky as the mind, breath, and speech of the body. See the Satapatha Brahmana X, I, 2, 1 - 4.

(18) "On Borobudur's Upper Terraces" by Hiram Woodward. Oriental Art, Autumn, 1999 issue, p. 37

(19) Cultural Horizons of India, Volume IV by Lokesh Chandra, pp. 411-416

(20) "Am means the inhaling of breath, am is its sound. It spreads throughout the body and onwards into the nine openings. The body appears like the sun (Suryarupa) when pervaded by it. It is called 'the mind illuminated by the sun' (smrti-surya). Ah means exhaling breath out of the body, ah is its sound. It comes out of the body. The body appears like the moon (Chandra-rupa) when breath comes out of the body. The body is serene, clear and pure at last when it is tranquil like the moon (santa-candra)." Cultural Horizons of India by Lokesh Chandra, p. 374-375.

In a later segment of the SHK, the composer explains that Divarupa is the final stage of yogic practice. "He is Bhatara Purusha to the disciples of bhagavan Kapila."

See also Cultural Horizons of India, Volume IV by Lokesh Chandra, pp. 411-412 and 425.

(21) Cultural Horizons of India by Lokesh Chandra, pp. 411-416

(22) Long before Buddhist art portrayed the historical Buddha in human form, artists used the wheel to symbolize the Buddha Sakyamuni. Throughout the world, artists have used the wheel to symbolize the sun. In the case of the Buddha, the solar symbolism of the wheel would have been highly appropriate because the Buddha Sakyamuni was often called the “kinsman of the supernal Sun.”

Pillars have been discovered throughout northern India with capitols that are crowned by a great wheel. This wheel is often supported by four lions, one in each of the cardinal directions. In addition, the nave of the wheel has the shape of a lotus with “...the eight petals representing directions; there are sixty-four spokes (and) the triple felly is fringed with twelve...symbols representing (the) solar months.... The wheel is supported by a column, the Axis of the Universe, corresponding to the trunk of the Tree of Life, and the ‘one leg’ of the Sun... At the base level there are a throne and footstool, with wheel-marked feet.... These, his ‘traces’ on Earth, are adored by human worshippers.” (See Figure 2 in the unnumbered pages at the end of Elements of Buddhist Iconography by Ananda Coomaraswamy.)

(23) Ageless Borobudur by A. J. Bernet Kempers, p. 218

(24) The Secret of Borobudur by Jan J. Boeles, pp. 6-7.