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PART I: A SURVEY OF BOROBUDUR'S SUMMIT
PART II: A SURVEY OF BOROBUDUR'S LOWER TERRACE LEVELS
PART III: ASTRONOMICAL AND CALENDRICAL CONSIDERATIONS
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In Pursuit of Sacred Science, Part III Architectural Survey of Borobudur's Summit - Astronomical Considerations
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
During the modern era, the Pole-Star Polaris never ascends above Java's northern horizon due to the island's location south of the Earth's equator. However, during the era in which Borobudur was constructed Polaris would have been visible from locations on the island with an unobstructed view of the northern horizon. The reason for this difference is due to a minor shift in the angle of the Earth's axis of rotation, which goes all but unnoticed because it occurs very gradually over a long period of time. The Hindu Puranas describe the Pole Star as a deity who bears the flow of the celestial Ganges, i.e., the 'Milky Way,' upon his head. This outpouring of heaven eventually makes its way to the Earth below where it forms the terrestrial Ganges in the holy land of India. The Javanese also believed that the celestial Ganges had its terrestrial counterpart on the island of Java. Their belief in the mirroring of the heavenly realm of the macrocosm within their own microcosmic surroundings is reflected in various inscriptions from the central Javanese period, including an inscription dating from 732 CE, which commemorates the installation of a linga on the top of the hilltop site of Gunung Wukir for the purpose of establishing the spiritual axis for the realm of the Hindu monarch King Sanjaya. "There is a great island called Yava, abundantly supplied with rice grains and other seeds, and rich in gold mines... where there is a wonderful place..., a heaven of heavens, surrounded by the Ganges and other holy resorts and laid in a beautiful woodland inhabited by elephants, existing for the good of the world." (1) When we look at topographical maps of central Java, we can find no better terrestrial prototype for the Ganges of the holy land of India than the Progo river. Although the Progo flows directly out of the north towards Borobudur for most of its length, i.e., directly out of the pole star to the north, to the southwest of the city of Magelang the river begins to meander to the west of Borobudur's meridian. Just prior to reaching Borobudur's latitude, swerves back to the east to meet up with the Elo river. The confluence of these two rivers, which merge about 2 kilometers to the southeast of the monument, also mirrors the location in India of the merging of the Ganges with the Yamuna, "..a place that traditional literature considered as holy because there 'the sacred nature of each river is doubled by means of contact with the other'" (Barabudur, Mendut and Pawon by J.L. Moens, T.B.G 1950-1951, p. 327). This certainly helps to explain why the Javanese elected to build the temples of Candi Mendut, Pawon, Banon and Bajong in the vicinity of the confluence of the Progo and the Elo. To the above we may also add the fact that the Lalitavistara-sutra that occupies 120 relief panels at Borobudur also places the new-born Sakyamuni at the confluence of two "sky rivers," for immediately following his birth he stands at the confluence of two streams, one hot and the other cold, which descend from the mouths of two nagas who are there to witness the event. To this we may also add the report of Scheltema, who was taken to the spot in the far North that the Javanese believed was the source of the Progo. "Farther on, surprise succeeding surprise, lies Joomprit, another delicious spot, sanctified by a holy grave, at the source of the Progo. The water, gushing forth from the mouth of a cavern and trickling down its sides, is immediately lost to sight in a declivity of the ferns." (Monumental Java by J. F. Scheltema, 1912, pp. 43-44.) Figure III-1. The Progo river in central Java originates in the mountainous north and flows from north to south for most of its length.
There is no doubt that the captains of Java's maritime fleet had once looked to the Pole-Star during during their long sea journeys between the island and the Asian mainland. When in the vicinity of their home island, they must also have found the Pole-Star's slow movement along the northern horizon fascinating, as if it were a lantern-lit ship slowing floating just above the surface of the waves. Only when their ships set sail for India did the Pole-Star begin its ascent to ever higher altitudes, thereby providing the one dependable visual indicator for calculating their northern progress. It therefore was of no minor significance to Javanese sailors when the Pole-Star finally vanished beneath the ocean waves during the mid-ninth century CE, never to be seen again during their own lifetimes nor during those of the generations to follow. Not knowing the natural law that had caused the Pole-Star's disappearance, the Javanese may have interpreted the event as a sign of cosmic disorder--not only in the celestial realm above but also in their own kingdom, which they regarded to be the mirror image of heaven. Following the Pole-Star's disappearance, ship captains in the vicinity of Java would have had to fix their bearings by using other stars as their navigational aids whenever they departed the island, only switching back to the formerly dependable Pole-Star when their ships reached those higher latitudes from which the star Polaris could still be seen. The most likely replacement candidate was the bright star Canopus, which is located in the southern half of the celestial sphere. The sages of India regarded this star to be the celestial manifestation of the god Agastya, who was known as the "Sage of the South." The emergence of Canopus as an essential maritime navigational aid may account for the many images of Agastya that archaeologists have discovered on the island. Inscriptions dating from 760, 856, 857, and 863 CE refer to individuals who bear the name Sri Kumbaja or Sri Kalashodbava, which are both well-known paraphrases for the sage Agastya. Since all three of the mid-ninth century inscriptions had followed a period of political instability in the kingdom, it is not impossible that the individual had been so-named in the inscriptions because he had been directly responsible for restoring order in the kingdom. Because the same name had been used 100 years earlier, its earlier use may also be a reflection of the occurrence of a similar situation during which the political axis of the Javanese kingdom had been restored by "Sri Kumjaya" in conformance with the celestial model. (Although Krom had refuted Kern's earlier astronomical interpretation governing the use of the above cited names in the inscriptions, we can see no reason for denying the wider implications given here with regards to the appearance of these names in the inscriptions of the central Javanese period. See Prasati Indonesia, volume II by J. G. de Casparis, 1956, pp. 248-249.) Borobudur was constructed at a time when the the Pole-Star could still be observed from those higher elevations on the island that provided an unobstructed view of the northern horizon. At local midnight each September on the days following the vernal (for southern latitudes) equinox, the Pole-Star appeared on Borobudur's northern horizon at the azimuth of 1.5 degrees west of true north. This minor shift to the west of true north is mirrored at Borobudur, which according to the archaeologists van Erp, Krom, and Kempers has a north/south axis that has also been skewed 1.5 degrees to the west of true north. (See Figure III-2a and 2b). Figures III-2a and II-2b. Borobudur's North/South axis is deflected 1.5 degrees to the West of True North.
In the holy scriptures of India the Pole-Star is called Dhruva, from the Sanskrit root dhr, which means “fixed,” “motionless,” and “permanent.” The wide swath of stars that the western world calls the Milky Way galaxy was known in India as the celestial Ganges. According to the Vishnu Purana, this celestial river is received by Dhruva, who sustains its flow upon his head. "Dhruva receives her and sustains her day and night devoutly on his head. In her waters the Seven Rishis (the constellation Ursa Major) practice exercises of austerity, wreathing their braided locks with her waves. Encompassed by her accumulated current, the orb of the Moon derives augmented luster from her contact. Falling from on high, as she issues from the Moon, she alights on the summit of Mount Meru, and thence flows to the four-corners of the earth for its purification.” (2) In terms of terrestrial geography, the Progo river provides the earthly counterpart to the celestial Ganges overhead. From its source in the mountains on Borobudur's northern horizon, the river flows more or less in the north/south direction, passing through the fertile plain located between the mountain of the "Maiden's Breast" in the northwest and the "Flame Throwing" volcano to the east. Some 5 km before the Progo reaches the monument it begins a wide bend to the east that eventually allows it to converge with the Elo river about 3 km to the east of the monument. The confluence of these two rivers mirrors the geography of the holiest site to be found on the Indian subcontinent, where the Ganges and Yamuna rivers join together. The terrestrial mirroring of the descent of the celestial Ganges is brought to its conclusion each monsoon season when the monument's 100 water spouts disperse streams of water to the four quarters of the world. Although Borobudur's local horizon to the north is relatively free of high altitude obstructions (See Photo III-1), observing it from Borobudur's hilltop site would have been difficult if not outright impossible during the late eighth century CE. However, Borobudur's architect could still have determined the Pole-Star's location through the use of one of the methods outlined below.
Photo III-1. Modern observers on the Borobudur's summit have an unobstructed view of the northern horizon. Two stars in the constellation Ursa Major are known as the pointers because they form a line that always points in the general direction of the Pole Star. Star-gazers in the Earth's northern latitudes have long been familiar with the usefulness of the celestial line formed by the stars Dubhe and Merak. (3) During the late eighth century CE, Dubhe-Merak pointer coincided with Borobudur's north/south axis alignment whenever the line formed by these two stars was parallel with the Earth’s axis of rotation as well as perpendicular with the local horizon.
Figure III-3. On September 26, 782 CE, Polaris was located at an azimuth of 1.5 degrees West of True North and an altitude of 0 degrees, 11 minutes above Borobudur's northern horizon at the time of local midnight. The star charts that appear above were computed using a Windows-based astronomy program from Cyberstar. The company offers a free demonstration download of its astronomy computer program at its Web site (http://www.cyberstar.com). The program can be used to dial back in time and examine Borobudur's night sky during the eighth century CE. All that's required to put Cyberstar's program to good use is Borobudur's latitude and longitude, which is 7, 36, 29 S; 110, 12, 14 E. The alignment shown in Figure III-4 represents the situation on February 10th, 783 CE at the time of local midnight when the Sun is at its nadir point.
Figure III-4. At the time of local midnight on February 10, 783 CE, Polaris was located more than 14 degrees below Borobudur's local horizon. However, the 'pointer line' created by the bright stars Dubhe and Merak had an azimuth of 1 degree 27 minutes to the west of true north. The Javanese were more than capable of making such astronomical observations. Collectively presenting the names of more than 40 stars, the inscriptions of central Java demonstrate that the island's natives had a good grasp of astronomy, which they used for both time keeping and divinatory purposes. "The following is an example of a typical date found on a Javanese inscription: The Saka year of 843, the month of Asuji, the 15th day of the bright half of the month, haryang (a day in the Javanese six day week), umanis (a day in the Javanese five day week), Wednesday, while the lunar mansion Uttarabhadrapada stood under the deity Ahirabudhna during the conjunction of Dhruva. The date is thus stated in very precise form."(4) The astronomical abilities of the Javanese are also mentioned in the reports written by Chinese visitors to the island in both 860 and 873 CE. According to the visiting envoys of the Chinese emperor, the natives made "...fortifications of wood and even the big houses are covered in palm thatch. They have ivory beds and matting made of the bark of bamboo. The country produces tortoise-shell, gold, silver, rhinoceros horns and ivory.... They have an alphabet as well as knowledge of astronomy." (5) It is also possible that Borobudur's legendary architect Gunadharma sought higher ground in order to view the Pole Star directly for himself. This would in part account for local legends concerning his continuing presence in the "Tower" (Menoreh) hills to the south of the monument, which would have provided a suitable spot for observing the Pole-Star. (See Photo III-2).
Photo III-2. The tip of the kala head over the southern entranceway to Borobudur's summit points in the direction of a cleft in the Menoreh ridge that represents Gunadharma's throat. The Borobudur that visitors see today was constructed on top of an earlier building about which very little is known. The original structure may have been a Hindu temple or perhaps a megalithic site similar to those found elsewhere on Java, as well as on the nearby islands of Bali and Sumatra. In either case, Borobudur's Buddhist builders could have taken into account the north/south alignment of an earlier structure that had been laid out at an earlier time when the Pole-Star was still visible from the top of the hill. (6) |
| The Vishnu
Purana states that the "Third Region" of the celestial sphere ranging from
the circumpolar constellation Ursa Major all the way to the Pole-Star is "...the
abode of the sanctified ascetics who are cleansed from every soil and in whom virtue and
vice are annihilated. This is that excellent place ...to which those repair in whom all
sources of suffering are extinct, in consequence of the cessation of the the consequences
of piety or iniquity, and where they never sorrow more. There abide Dharma, Dhruva, and
other spectators of the world, radiant with the superhuman faculties...acquired through
religious meditation; and there are fastened and interwoven into all that is, and all that
shall ever be, animate or inanimate. [This] seat of Vishnu is contemplated by the wisdom
of the Yogis, identified with supreme light, as the radiant eye of heaven." (7) In the Brhat Samhita, the astronomer Varahamihira poetically describes the movements of the constellation of the "Seven Rishis"(Ursa Major) "...through whom the northern region shines as though bedecked with a pearl necklace.... [They are] like a maiden with a smiling countenance wearing a garland of white lotuses, by whom she appears to have a lord (or husband), and by whose circular movements the northern quarter seems verily dancing at the instruction of the leader, the Pole-Star." (8) Varahamihira's simile of the husband and wife is an allusion to the ancient Hindu marriage ceremony, during which the groom and bride circumambulate a sacred fire in the clockwise direction in conformance with the daily course of the Sun. Then the bride takes seven steps to the North or the Northeast, after which they pay their respects to the four quarters of the sky, the stars, the Moon, seven bright stars in the constellation Ursa Major and finally the Pole-Star, which the bridegroom addresses with the following words: "'Firm dwelling, firm origin. The firm one thou art... Thou art the pillar of the stars... May I become firm in this world. I know thee...as the center of the universe... as the string that holds the universe... as the pillar of the universe...as the navel of the universe.'" (9) The ritual of the seven steps as an ascent upon seven stars to the zenith also plays a prominent role in the story of the Buddha's birth into the Sakya clan. "At his seventh step the Buddha has reached the Pole-Star in the north, the apex of the dome of heaven, the center of the rotation of the celestial sphere and location of the Gateway of Exit from the cosmos; he has paced out the seven directions of space, here superimposed as rungs upon a ladder and coincident with the planetary spheres. Reaching the Pole-Star he has transcended spatial and temporal conditions and returned to the principle center of the universe. He is at the zenith of the universe and also at the 'eldest place,' the point that is the origin of time, so that he can declare himself 'the Eldest in the world.' Reaching the Pole-Star he is contemporary with the world's beginning: 'He has abolished Time and the Creation, and finds himself in the a-temporal instant that precedes the cosmogony.'" (10)
Photo III-3: Unfortunately the relief at Borobudur that portrays the seven steps on seven lotus blossoms is badly damaged.
Figure III-5. A schematic of the the six sets of seven steps that the Buddha takes according to the Lalitavistara Sutra. There is a bas-relief panel on the northwest side of Borobudur's fourth gallery balustrade that portrays a group of seven small orbs that are located between a crescent Moon and the Sun. These seven spheres either represent the constellation of the Seven Rishis or the seven planets of Indian astronomy.
Photo III-4. A relief panel located in the northwest corner of Borobudur's fourth gallery balustrade features the image of seven stars or planets flanked to either side by a crescent Moon and the Sun. |
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 There is perhaps
another way in which the holy Rishis of the celestial sphere could have been incorporated
into Borobudur's design. The images of two holy men appear on each of the arches over the
four gateways that lead into the summit. They appear to be engaged in the act of tossing
flowers down upon the heads of all those who pass through the portals. Could these eight
holy men be in some way related to the sages of the celestial sphere? Photo III-5. In celebration of the worshipper's arrival at the summit two holy men toss flowers down upon heads of worshippers as they pass through the portal.The composers of the Hindu scriptures also considered the Seven Rishis to be the mind-born sons of Brahma and therefore primeval creators in their own right. At the beginning of each World Age, they appear on the Earth to establish moral order or "dharma." Then at the end of the World Age they ascend to the Janaloka heaven in order to escape the conflagration that brings the era to a close. While residing in the Janaloka heaven, they observe the Hindu god Brahma in his destructive aspect as Kala, Lord of Time. The architect's positioning of the pairs of holy men in close proximity to the Kala heads that top each of the four archways at Borobudur are perhaps meant to be a visual affirmation of the holy men's identity. (11) In the Satapatha Brahmana, the Seven Rishis are called the seven vital airs (pranas) that pass through the seven opening of the head (i.e., the two eyes, ears, nostrils and the mouth). To these seven pranas is sometimes added an eighth in order to represent the tongue's role as the organ of speech. "Formerly, the Rishis, as the pranas, were present before all this world existed; desiring it, they exerted themselves through austerities and tapas.... When the pranas were kindled, they created seven different persons (purushas) and then made [them] into a single person (purusha). They gathered upwards whatever glory and essence had resided in those seven...and it became the head of...Prajapati." (12) The composer of one of the Upanishads uses the symbolism of a down-turned bowl to represent Prajapati's head in its role as the dome of the firmament. "'Manifold glory has been placed into it (the bowl). On its lip sit the Seven Rishis, the tongue as the eighth communicates with Brahman.' What is called the cup having its mouth below and its bottom above is this head, for its opening (the mouth) is below and its bottom (the skull) is above. When it is said that manifold glory has been placed in it, the senses verily are the manifold glory, and (the composer of the Satapatha Brahmana) therefore means the senses. When he says that the Seven Rishis sit on its lip, the Rishis are verily the (active) senses, and (the composer) means the senses. And when he says that the tongue as the eighth communicates with Brahman, it is because the tongue, as the eighth, does indeed communicate with Brahman." (13) The composers of the Puranas sometimes add Agastya to the group of seven as the eighth Rishi. In addition, an eighth prana joins the initial seven to represent the "voice" that emanates from the Prajapati's mouth. although not specifically mentioned in this context, Agastya's mouth is credited elsewhere for drink up the entire southern ocean at the request of the Devas. (14) We may therefore regard the presence of four pairs of holy men over the summit entranceways as yet another method by which the architect has defined the boundary that separates the material, mortal and perishable realms of existence from the immaterial, immortal and imperishable realm at the summit, together with the open view of the sky overhead that it presents. According to the composer of the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, there are two forms of the supreme spirit: "...the material and the immaterial, the mortal and the immortal, the solid and the fluid, sat (being) and tya (that). Everything except air and sky is material, is mortal, is solid, is definite. The essence of that which is material, which is mortal, which is solid, which is definite is the Sun that shines, for he is the essence of sat (the definite). But air and sky are immaterial, are immortal, are fluid, are indefinite. The essence of that which is immaterial, which is immortal, which is fluid, which is indefinite is the person in the disk of the sun, for he is the essence of tyad (the indefinite)." (15) |
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In Part I of this article we examined in broad strokes the dimensions of Borobudur's summit area. Now that we have described the entire structure of Borobudur we shall need to pay the summit a return visit in order to see whether the measurements for the individual platforms can tell us anything more about their respective roles in the monument's symbolism. With regards to the third round terrace platform, the length of the axes in the intermediate directions is 118.2 talas, a number that suggests a possible calendrical analog in the form of one of the major divisions of the lunar year (118.12 days). India's ancient calendar of India divided the year into three major divisions, each of which in turn consisted of two seasons. (16) This tentative attribution is further reinforced by the platform's visible support of sixteen stupas containing Buddha images. In the Mahayana Buddhist scriptures, the Tathagata is often portrayed at the center of a gathering, surrounded by his sixteen spiritual "sons," the bodhisattva, who implore the Master to roll the "Wheel of the Law" (dharmachakra). The significance here of the number sixteen is that it likens the career of the Bodhisattva to the progression of the sixteen phase changes or "digits" of the Moon, an idea that can ultimately be traced back to the Hindu Vedas and the Brahmanas. "Prajapati is the year and he consists of sixteen digits. The nights indeed are his fifteen digits, the fixed point (the "New Moon") is his sixteenth digit. He is increased and decreased by the nights. Having on the New Moon night entered with the sixteenth part into everything that has life, he is thence born again in the morning." (17) The appearance on this terrace of Buddha images may be explained by way of the following passage from the Prashna Upanishad--which was subsequently incorporated into a Buddhist text called the Anguttara Nigaya (4.198). The implication is that the visible, tangible manifestations of the 'universal spirit,' whether Buddhist or Hindu, both emanate from and return to, their ultimate point of origin. At Borobudur's summit, the sixteen Buddha images may be regarded as the downflowing emanations of the main stupa, while the aspiring Bodhisattva who completes one circuit around this platform is the flow in reverse. "As flowing rivers go towards the ocean, when they have reached the ocean sink they into it. Their name and form are broken, and people speak of the ocean only. Exactly thus these sixteen parts of the spectator that go toward the Purusa, when they have reached the Purusa, sink into him, their name and form are broken, and people speak of the Purusa only, and he becomes without parts and immortal." (18) As we previously saw in Part I, the sum of dimensions of the second round terrace platform in the intermediate directions equals 365.24 talas, which is equivalent to the duration of a solar year. The vertical mid-point of this platform is also the vertical mid-point for an entire structure that has been estimated to have been 182.57 talas in height, a dimension that is equivalent to the duration of one-half of a solar year. The half year was of major significance to the composers of various Hindu scriptures. The period between the vernal and autumnal equinoxes, when the duration of daylight exceeds that of darkness, was called a "day" of the gods on Mount Meru. In addition, the texts often cite the Sun's "northern progress" along the eastern horizon between the solstices as a significant cycle. Given the evident relationship that exists between Borobudur's summit and the vastupurusha mandala of Hindu temple architecture, it will be prudent for us to examine the possibility that the summit's second round terrace platform symbolizes the "Golden Embryo" (hiranyagarbha) previously encountered in "The Essence of Tathagatahood." According to the Rig Veda, the Sun props apart the shell of the cosmic egg to form the two half-domes of heaven and earth. Floating within this cosmic egg is the primordial substance of life called the "prakriti." The composers of the Hindu scriptures often employed lunar metaphors when they expound upon the primordial "stuff of life," which has its counterpart in the human body in the form of the womb from which life itself begins. In the section of the Satapatha Brahmana that sets forth the procedures for constructing the Vedic fire altar, the prakriti is symbolized by the lotus leaf. It is placed under that golden solar plate upon which the effigy of the Purusha lies facing the sky. The three components of this ancient symbol of a return to the immortal life leads us to a possible determination for the symbolic meaning of the third round terrace platform. The summit's inner core of 16 + 24 stupas and Buddha images is in turn surrounded by the 32 statues and stupas of the first terrace platform where the architect has also presented number 32 in dimensional form as the extent by which the third and outermost platform extends beyond the second one in each of the intermediate directions. The Chinese chronicles called the New History of the Tang state that during the ninth century CE the Javanese monarch was surrounded by a total of 32 high dignitaries. Twenty-eight of these officials were named after the 28 asterisms or "nakshatras" of Indian astronomy. Each of these "stellar" officials were responsible for one of the kingdoms territories. In addition, the king was advised by four more ministers who were identified with the four Guardians (Lokapalas) of the cardinal directions. These thirty-two high dignitaries formed a protective shell around the ruling monarch, who embodied the pivotal axis of the entire kingdom. (19) In this way, the Javanese monarch's role as the pivot for the entire kingdom was meant to mirror the celestial state of affairs in the celestial abode of the Lord of the Devas on Mount Meru, where he is surrounded by thirty-two other Hindu divinities. As a universal sovereign (chakravartin), the body of the king was also supposed to display the 32 marks of the "Great Being" (Mahapurusha). Even if his physical body failed to do so, the outermost shell of his political "body" fulfilled his requirement in the form of his 28 "stellar" officials and four ministers of the orients. The Buddha's outer "shell" of the body also displays the very same 32 defining marks of the "Mahapurusha." The Tathagatha, however, foregoes the destiny of the "wheel-rolling" monarch to become the "universal sovereign" of the entire cosmos, thereby bridging the great divide between microcosm and macrocosm. In the Lalitavistara Sutra, the newly-born Buddha takes seven steps to the east, seven to the south, seven to the west and seven to the north. Conducted in the presence of the Lokapalas of the four orients, he proceeds to define the limits of his realm by stepping through the four orients of space in concordance with the path of the sun, moon and planets.
In "The Essence of Tathagatahood" it was demonstrated how Borobudur's summit is in conformance with the vastupurusha mandala of 81 squares which Indian architects had used as an underlying schematic for their temple constructions. The outermost shell of this cosmic diagram consists of 32 squares that are occupied by the divinities that rule the 28 asterisms and the four orients of the compass. They present the celestial counterpart of the 32 marks of the Mahapurusha, whose celestial body is the plane of the ecliptic, according to Hindu texts such as the Vishnudharmottara. When we overlay the vastupurusha mandala's grid of 81 squares over Borobudur's summit area, each square of the plan measures 28.2 x 28 talas. In addition, the number 28 is presented by the first summit platform itself, which extends outward from the second platform by an average of 28 talas in each of the four intermediate and cardinal directions. We may regard this figure as the architect's method for defining the extent or limit for outermost shell of the summit just as the 28 asterisms define the extent of the cosmic shell. Likewise, the second round terrace platform extends beyond the first by about 32 talas in each of the intermediate directions. The third and final difference dimension that we shall examine here--represents how far the third terrace platform extends beyond the main stupa platform. The number 23.7 may have been intended to represent the distance along the eastern horizon that the sun travels from equinox to solstice, which was also 23.7 edges at the time that Borobudur was constructed.
Given the architect's defining of the summit's second terrace platform using dimensions pertaining to the solar cycle, we would expect that the 24 stupas and images supported by this platform would also have a solar significance, perhaps to symbolize the 12 "bright" (suklapaksha) and 12 "dark" (krishnapaksa) half-months of the calendar year. In such an event, however, the intended symbolism would inevitably have both lunar and solar aspects, for the half-month is clearly regulated by the phases of the moon. In the Satapatha Brahmana, the two half-months are presented as the result of the pairing of the solar deity Mitra and the lord of the waters Varuna, who are said to cohabit on the night of the New Moon, the sixteenth digit by which Prajapati/Purusha enters into everything that has life. "Mitra and Varuna...are the two half moons: the waxing one is Varuna and the waning one is Mitra. During the night of the New Moon these two meet....and in that same night Mitra plants his seed in Varuna, and when it (the Moon) wanes, then it is produced from that seed." (21) As further developed below, it is not unreasonable to associate the 24 stupas of the second terrace platform with the 24 half-months of the year, with regards to the return path of the aspiring Bodhisattva at least. For if we follow the logic of Hindu scriptures, it is precisely this "co-habitation" of the dark and bright halves of the month that leads to the production of the Moon's digits, i.e., the remaining tier of 16 stupas and images.
Photo III-6: The hexagonal pattern seen at the base of the stupa just above the lotus petals represents the seed of the lotus flower. This art motif appears on all of the stupas located on the monument's summit, including the main stupa. |
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The Summit's inner core from the second round terrace platform inward collectively generates a "Buddha-field" the is comprised of 2,240 emanation bodies ((16 x 44 = 704) + (24 x 64 = 1536)) radiating into the ten directions of space. If we regard Borobudur's lower terraces to be the nadir direction, then one-tenth of this total would account for the precise number of Buddha images that appear in the niches of the monument's uppermost three galleries (64 + 72 + 88v = 224). Perhaps this is only mere coincidence, but the organization of the 2,224 emanation bodies into two tiers also happens to produce a close approximation of the "perfect" number for calculating the circumference of a circle. The ratio 704:2240 (7:22) equals 3.1428, which is the very same approximation for pi (3.14159...) that the Indian astronomers Aryhabhatta and Bhaskara once employed in their attempts to calculate the Earth's circumference. (22) Coincidental or not, the appearance of a mathematical formula for pi in this particular part of the monument is entirely synchronous with the fact that the third terrace platform approaches, but not does not actually achieve, the perfection of the circle, displaying a relatively small difference between its major and minor axes that only amounts to 30 cm. By contrast, the variance on display at the two remaining summit platforms exceeds ten times that amount. At Borobudur, the perfection of the circle is reserved for the main stupa platform, which is the pivotal axis of the entire structure. Symbolizing the shell of the cosmic egg that forms the dome of the firmament, the 32 stupas and Buddha statues on the summit's first terrace platform also produce a Buddha-field that is comprised of 2,048 emanations (32 x 64). In this second case, however, we would need to include the 32 statues within the stupas residing on this platform (32 x 64 + 32 = 2,080) in order to find corresponding group of Buddha images on the monument's lower rectangular levels. Using the latter example as the basis for our calculation, the nadir direction would receive one-tenth of the total emanations, which would account for the remaining 208 Buddha images to be found at the bottom of the monument. For this to be a valid exercise, however, we would need to arrive at a good reason for differentiating the 40 stupas and images within the summit's core and the 32 stupas and images that reside on the summit's outermost terrace platform. It should be noted that the two tiers comprising a total of 208 Buddha images that are found in the lower part of the monument form a partitioned area that contains the bas-reliefs that portray the stories of the Buddha Sakyamuni. This partition sets the area off from the rest of the terrace levels that present the Gandavyuha reliefs. To understand how this evidence might be applied to the problem at hand, we must pursue the "three mysteries" of the Buddha called the Nirmanakaya, the Sambhogakaya and the Dharmakaya. The Nirmanakaya is the physical "Body of Manifestation" in which the Buddha which appears in the phenomenal world for the express purpose of preaching the dharma to human beings. Since the Buddha's Nirmanakaya body is physically projected into the material world, this alone may account for why the 32 images of the first summit terrace platform directly enter and participate in the Buddha-field that is collectively generated by the perforation holes of the 32 stupas and images. The Samboghakaya is the "Body of Enjoyment" that the Buddha displays to the Bodhisattvas who have reached the higher stages, who are able to visualize him as various forms of purified light. The Samboghakaya Buddha also projects or emits various forms into the world of men for the benefit of those who have not yet progressed spiritually enough to see the Buddha's glorified body of pure light. These projections collectively represent the emanations or "nirmitas" of the Buddha's Nirmanakaya ("Body of Manifestation"). "The Samboghakaya is like the sun in the sky and its light shines everywhere. There is only a single sun in the sky but there are many reflected images of this single sun in the many vessels of water on the ground. These reflections are the Nirmanakaya. But only when the practitioner has attained the path of vision have we sufficiently purified our obscurations so that we can see the Sambhogakaya and hear its teachings directly." (23) The above quote gives us the explanation we need for why the images of the summit's inner two platforms do not directly enter and participate in the Buddha-field created by the perforation holes in the remaining 40 stupas on the platform of the inner core. Their emanations are directed at the Bodhisattvas of the higher stages who have entered the Gandavyuha levels of the galleries. The Dharmakaya ("Body of the Law") is the inexpressible and inconceivable Absolute Body of the Buddha that lies beyond the reality limit of form. This third and final mystery body is reserved for the monument's main stupa, the interior of which remains closed off from our inspection and which has been set outside the four spokes of the summit's solar wheel of time. It not only represents the formless realm that lies beyond the reach of all but the Tathagatas but the ultimate source of everything that appears within Borobudur, not only in the lower rectangular galleries but also at the very summit of the monument. |
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According to the Paramita school of Mahayana Buddhism, the Sakyamuni became a Manifest and Complete Buddha in the final outpost of the gods called the Akanishtha heaven. In addition, the Paramita school holds that Sakyamuni in the Akanishtha heaven does not appear in any shape other than that of a body adorned with the 32 characteristics and 80 minor marks. (24) The Mantrayana school of Buddhism expanded upon this legacy by declaring that it was the mental body of the Sakyamuni that proceeded to the Akanishtha heaven, even as his manifest body remained seated on the bank of the Nairanjana River. "After the Buddhas of the ten directions had given him garment initiation and diadem initiation, they bade him enter the intense contemplation in the sequence of the five Abhisambodhi...[after which] he became a Manifest Complete Buddha as Mahavairocana, the Samboghakaya. Having become a Buddha, he performed the four kinds of marvel. He proceeded to the summit of Mount Meru and pronounced the Yoga Tantras. Thereupon, he returned to the world of men and re-entered his maturation body on the bank of the Nairanjana river. Then he rose, defeated Mara, and taught the methods of Manifest Complete Buddhahood...." (25) In "The Essence of Tathagatahood" I suggested the possibility that Borobudur's architect may have intended the monument's summit to serve as a representation of the Bodhisattva's assimilation of the five Abhisambodhi teachings of the Tathagatas in the Akanishtha Heaven, which lead to his becoming a Complete Manifest Buddha. As Lokesh Chandra has recently demonstrated, the five Abhisambodhis are also reflected in a process of unfolding that is described in the Old Javanese Buddhist catechism known as the Sang Hyang Kamahyanikan (SHK). According to the SHK, the Divarupa ("Light Body") becomes embodied as the deity Bhatara Buddha, who is also called "the glorious Bhatara Sakyamuni...who is known as the Teacher of the Gods. A deity comes forth from the right side of the body of Bhatara Buddha, red it color, in dhyana-mudra...called Bhatara Lokesvara. A deity comes forth from the left side of Sakyamuni, blue in color, in the bhuhspara-mudra...called Bhatara Bajrapani. These three are called Bhatara Ratnatraya. They are Buddha, Dharma, Sangha. Their essence (tattva) is kaya, vak and citta.... They wish to pervade the Three Worlds. Bhatara Vairocana arises from the mouth of Sakyamuni. Bhatara Lokesvara divides himself into two, so that Bhatara Aksobhya and Bhatara Ratnasambhava come into existence. Bhatara Bajrapani divides himself, so that Bhatara Amitabha and Bhatara Amoghasiddhi come into existence. These five are termed the Five Tathagatas. They are also called Bhatara Sarvajnana." According to Chandra, the above text represents two stages of the evolution of the Abhisambodhi-Vairocana. "In this passage the word Sakyamuni is equivalent to Vairocana. He is not the historical Sakyamuni...He is the Abhisambodhi-Vairocana, flanked by Padmapani and Vajrapani." (Cult. Hor. India, Vol. IV by Lokesh Chandra, pp. 411-413) We may now list the five Abhisambodhis of the Complete Manifest Buddha in a way that allows us to determine their respective functions within the overall process. THE FIRST STAGE OF THE ABHISAMBODHI PROCESS The Vairocana-Abhisambodhi process begins with the Abhisambodhis of Aksobhya (I) and Ratnasambhava (II). According to the SHK, these are the two Tathagatas who are produced from the body of the Jina Lokesvara and therefore are hereinafter identified as the Vak (voice) function of the Kaya-Vak-Citta triratna in the SHK as well as the Dharma function of the Buddha-Dharma-Sangha triad that this particular text presents. Abhisambodhi (I). As the result of his comprehension of the sixteen kinds of voidness, the Bodhisattva achieved the Abhisambodhi called the "Revelation Enlightenment resulting from Discrimination." This spiritual exercise in thought penetration allowed the Bodhisattva to directly see "...the intrinsic purity of his own supreme state of thought in the shape of a moon disk in his own heart, thereby attaining the mirror-like knowledge of Aksobhya...." The texts state that for the candidates who enter later, the Abhisambodhi of Aksobhya is realized through the contemplation of the intrinsic purity of the "sixteen kinds of voidness of their own supreme state of thought under the symbols of the sixteen vowels and the transformation of the latter into the shape of a moon disk in their own hearts." (26) Abhisambodhi (II). This is the Abhisambodhi of the Revelation Enlightenment that is the result of one's resolve to attain the highest enlightenment. This requires the Bodhisattva's perception of the freedom from defilement of the voidness of his own supreme state of thought, which takes the form of a completely-full moon disk in his own heart. This is how the Bodhisattva attained the "equality knowledge" that is called the essence of Ratnasambhava. (27) THE SECOND STAGE OF THE ABHISAMBODHI PROCESS The second stage of the Vairocana-Abhisambodhi process incorporates the Abhisambodhis of Amitabha (III) and Amoghasiddhi (IV). According to the SHK, these are the two Tathagatas who are produced from the body of the Jina Vajrapani and therefore are hereinafter identified as the Citta (mind) function of the Kaya-Vak-Citta triratna of the SHK as well as the Sangha function of this text's Buddha-Dharma-Sangha triad. Abhisambodhi (III). Contemplating the meaning of the upright vajra, the Bodhisattva perceives the shape of an upright thunderbolt in his own heart. Identified as the essence of the Jina Amitabha, this is the Abhisambodhi called "Revelation Enlightenment resulting from the firm thunderbolt," which the Bodhisattva reportedly attained by contemplating the meaning of the mantra "I consist of thunderbolt." Abhisambodhi (IV). Next the Bodhisattva perceived his own heart to be a white thunderbolt comprised of the finest atoms of the thunderbolts of all the Tathagatas, which allowed him to assimilate the essence of the Jina and Amoghasiddhi. This is the Abhisambodhi called the "Revelation Enlightenment resulting from thunderbolt composition." (28) THE THIRD STAGE OF THE ABHISAMBODHI PROCESS The third and final stage of the Vairocana-Abhisambodhi process is the Abhisambodhi of Vairocana (V). According to the SHK, this is o Tathagata who is produced from the body of Bhatara Buddha-Sakyamuni and therefore are hereinafter identified as the Kaya (body) function of the Kaya-Vak-Citta triratna as well as the Buddha function of the Buddha-Dharma-Sangha triad. Abhisambodhi (V). As the Bodhisattva contemplates the mantra "Om, like all the 'Thus-come ones (Tathagatas)' so am I,'" the Tathagata Mahavairocana "...comes into direct view, adorned with the thirty-two characteristics and the eighty minor marks." Becoming a Manifest Complete Buddha, the Sakyamuni "...attained the 'Dharma-realm knowledge' which is the essence of Vairocana and the Abhisambodhi called "Revelation-Enlightenment resulting from equality with all the Tathagatas." "After becoming a full Buddha...his Samboghakaya remained in the Akanishtha Heaven. By means of the Nirmanakaya he performed various acts. For example, with the single apparition of a four-faced Vairocana, he proceeded to the summit of Mount Sumeru and recited the fundamental Yoga Tantra (Tattvasamgraha). Then he appeared in the world of men and displayed the methods of defeating Mara, the manifest Complete Buddhahood, and so forth." (29) The Three Stages outlined above are equivalent to the three tiers of stupa-Buddhas on Borobudur's summit: the Essence of Bhatara Sakyamuni-Vairocana (16), the Essence of Amibabha-Amoghasiddhi that emerges from Bhatara Lokeshvara (24), and the Essence of Ratnasambhava-Aksobhya that emerges from Bhatara Bajrapani (32). Likewise, the three tiers must symbolize the essence of citta (mind), vak (voice) and kaya (body). The reason that all 72 Buddhas are identical is that they represent the precise moment of completion when the Bodhisattva becomes the Complete, Manifest Buddha. The harmikas on the 24 and 32 stupas of the bottom and middle platforms are square because these 56 "Stupa-Buddhas" collectively represent the point of origin for the Jinas of the cardinal directions East, South, West and North that appear in the rectangular galleries below. The diamond-shaped lattice work on these 56 stupas symbolizes the sun as the instrument that marks off the "square" of the earth over which the four Jinas preside by means of its daily progress along the horizon. The solar symbolism is reinforced by the numerical symbolism of the pattern with 3,640 elements that is collectively generated by the 56 stupas. With 64 diamond-shaped openings each and with 56 buddha images within their interiors (64 x 56 + 56 = 3,640), they radiate a total of 364 nirmita-Buddhas into each of the ten directions of space, including Borobudur as the nadir. The Stupa-Buddhas on both tiers are also identical because they are an architectural representation of a "tweenheid" -- the Lokesvara-Bajrapani Bodhisttva combination that emerges from the right and left sides of Bhatara Sakyamuni's body in the SHK. One reason for the numerical difference between the two Stupa-Buddha tiers is to allow the lowest tier of 32 stupas to indicate the 32 "marks of distinction" of the Complete, Manifest Buddha on the summit. The harmikas on the 16 stupas of the top tier are octagonal because they represent the essence of Vairocana who surveys the eight directions of space from the zenith. The square-shaped lattice work on these 16 stupas symbolizes that they are the source of the remaining Jinas and stupas on the summit. This meaning is reinforced by the numerical symbolism of the pattern with 720 elements that is collectively generated by the 16 stupas, with 44 square-shaped openings each and 16 buddha images that are located on these two tiers (44 x 16 + 16 = 720). They radiate a total of 72 nirmita-Buddhas into each of the ten directions of space, including Borobudur as the nadir. The main stupa at the apex has both a square and an octagonal harmika to indicate that it is ultimately the source of both the three-fold and the five-fold segments of Borobudur as an architectural Body of a Complete, Manifest Buddha. The main stupa is the head, the top platform Buddha-stupas the heart, the second tier stupa-Buddhas at the level of the solar plexus and the bottom tier Stupa-Buddhas at the level of the vajra as the tantric symbol of the male organ of generation.
Photo III-7. Buddha displaying Vitarka mudra. The particular importance of the vitarka mudra "...is demonstrated in the final panel of the [Lalitavistara] reliefs where the Buddha preaches the all-important First Sermon -- displaying the vitarka mudra with his right hand. Krom observes that, although the right hand (and most of the right arm) of the Buddha is broken off on this relief, the position of the left hand resting in the lap of the Buddha excludes a dharmachakra mudra (which might have been expected). Krom also observes that the exclusion of a dharmachakra mudra is very strange, because the text [of the Lalitavistara Sutra] specifically mentions [it]....(30) Photo III-8. Buddha image displaying the vitarka mudra.
One relief on the fourth gallery balustrade even features a cluster of seven stars or planets that are bracketed by a crescent Moon and the Sun, both of which are portrayed floating on clouds (See Photo 9 above right). This may be a reference to the constellation that the astronomers of India known as the Seven Rishis, better known in the west as the constellation Ursa Major, which is located in close proximity to Mount Meru's home at the Earth's celestial north pole. Photo III-9. Crescent moon and sun in a relief from the fourth gallery balustrade.
The Complete Manifest Buddha therefore appears four times at Borobudur: 1. In his Dharmakaya conformation as the main stupa in the World Without Form (Arupadhatu); 2. in his Sambhogakaya conformation as the 72 Stupa-Buddhas in the heavenly Paradise of Vairocana at the zenith of the World of Form (Rupadhatu); 3. as the Four-faced Vairocana-Sakyamuni who preaches to the 33 deities on Mount Meru at the very top of the World of Desire (Kamadhatu) from his 64 niches above the fourth gallery walls, which collectively face all four primary wind regions; 4. and as the Sakyamuni-Vairocana who preaches in the terrestrial world of men below. Go To: In Pursuit of Sacred Science, Part IV
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Indonesia, Volume II by J. G. de Casparis, p. 19.
(2) The Vishnu Purana, H. H. Wilson translation, p. 81. (3) The Encyclopedia Britannica, copyright 1999, CD Rom version. (4) Indonesian Heritage: Ancient History, p. 23. (5) Borobudur by Jacques Dumarcay, p. 18. (6) Architecture, Time and Eternity by Adrian Snodgrass, Volume I, p. 116. (9) Architecture, Time and Eternity by Adrian Snodgrass, Volume I, p. 114. (10) Architecture, Time and Eternity by Adrian Snodgrass, Volume I, pp. 115 - 116. (11) Traditions of the Seven Rishi by John E. Mitchiner, pp. 49-50. Certain Hindu astronomy texts also say that the Seven Rishis rule over the 27 asterisms that collectively define the celestial plane of the ecliptic by which the Sun, Moon and planets traverse the dome of the sky. They reign over each asterism in succession for a period of 100 years, completing one circuit every 2,700 years. (12) Satapatha Brahmana, 6.1.1.1-5. (13) See the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad I, 5, 1, 2; II, 2, 3; and II, 3, 3-4. (14) Traditions of the Seven Rishi by John E. Mitchiner, pp. 4, 6, 7 and 256. (15) Brhadaranyaka Upanishad III, 1, 1-3. (16) Others have previously pointed out the possible lunar significance of the architect's positioning of the Buddha's birth in the 28th panel of the first gallery's Lalitavistara relief series in conformance with the 28 asterisms of Hindu astronomy that "house the moon" on the successive nights of the lunar month. It should be noted in this context that the number 118 also plays a role in the 160 relief panels of the monument's hidden foot, which collectively portray a total of 118 actions and their karmic results. The first 117 panels of the relief series illustrate 117 different actions that all lead to identical results, while the remaining 43 panels collectively portray a single action that gives rise to 43 different results. (17) The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, I, 5, 14. (18) Prasna Upanishad 6.5. (19) Barabudur: Sketch of a History of Buddhism Based On An Archaeological Criticism of the Texts by Paul Mus. English translation by Alexander Macdonald, p. 122. See also the various other citations given in Architecture, Time and Eternity by Adrian Snodgrass, copyright 1990, Aditya Prakashan, p. 211. (20) The Lalitavistara Sutra translated by Gwendolyn Bays. Dharma Publishing, copyright 1983, p. 131-132. (21) Satapatha Brahmana II.4.4.18-19. (22) See the comments of Ebenezer Burgess in his translation of the Suryasiddhanta, i 59 - 60. Indian mathematicians eventually came upon a more exact method for their calculation of pi through the use of the ratio 3438:10,800, which produces 3.14136, which is far closer to the modern calculation of 3.14159.... (23) See "The Attaining of Buddhahood" as taught by Lopon Tenzin Namdak according to the Bonpo Tradition. http://www.surajamitra.com/ (24) Introduction to the Buddhist Tantras translated by F. D. Lessing and Alex Wayman. Motilal Banarsidass, copyright 1968, pp. 21-24. Although the Tibetan author of this text lived in the 15th century, his overview of the five Abhisambodhis condenses the contents of earlier documents, many of which had been written prior to the construction of Borobudur. (25) Introduction to the Buddhist Tantras, p. 27. (26) Introduction to the Buddhist Tantras, p. 29. (27) Introduction to the Buddhist Tantras, p. 31. (28) Introduction to the Buddhist Tantras, pp. 31-33. (29) Introduction to the Buddhist Tantras, pp. 33-35. (The italics have been added to this quote by the editor for emphasis.) (30) The Secret of Borobudur by Jan J. Boeles. Copyright 1985, pp. 6 - 7. (31) Panchasiddhantika by Varahamihira translated by G. Thibeau and M. S. Dvivedi. Cosmo Publications copyright 1988, pp. 83 and 104.
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At the center of Borobudur's cosmic egg is the
main stupa platform, from which the four spokes of the solar year radiate outward in the
form of the summit's dimensions in the direction of the four orients. The circumference of
this platform--222 talas-- suggests the union of opposing forces, perhaps those very
forces that are reflected in the lunar (female) and solar (male) dimensions that we have
encountered throughout the monument. At the same time however, the circumference also
produces the number six (2+2+2), which finds its material correspondence at Borobudur in
the form of the six different mudras that the Buddha images display at various stages. 
The fourth gallery walls that form a boundary between the
lower monument and the summit is crowned by niches that contain a total of 64 Buddha
images, each of which displays the hand gesture for preaching (vitarka mudra).
Unlike the other Buddha images to be found at the lower levels of the monument, these
figures serenely survey all four points of the compass. Does this tableau not, for all
intents and purposes, generate the very image of a deity with four faces? We are therefore
within our rights to suggest that this image represents Nirmana body of the Buddha
in the form of the four-faced Vairocana who preached to the Devas on top of Mount Meru,
according to various Abhisambodhi texts. 