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PART I: A SURVEY OF BOROBUDUR'S SUMMIT
PART II: A SURVEY OF BOROBUDUR'S LOWER TERRACE LEVELS
PART III: ASTRONOMICAL AND CALENDRICAL CONSIDERATIONS
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In Pursuit of Sacred Science, Part II Architectural Survey of the Rectangular Terrace Levels by Mark Long
Table of Contents: The Four Axes of the Architectural Body As previously demonstrated in Part I of this article series, there are four axes which radiate outward from the "hub" of the summit's main stupa platform in the cardinal directions, representing the four quadrants of the annual "Sun wheel" of the solar cycle. The Sun's symbolic presence is further confirmed by the cruciform shape of the entire summit area, which is a universal symbol across cultures of the crossroads of solar time. Four additional spokes radiate downward from the fourth gallery gateways that terminate at the bottom edge of the staircases at promenade level. The sum of these four spokes equals 360.34 t, perhaps to collectively represent the four quadrants of the 360-day civil calendar that formerly regulated secular life in India, in which case the this part of the monument would represent the habitat of all perishable and mortal beings.
The sum of the monument's remaining North/South and East/West axes approximate the duration of a one-half lunar year. The dimensions of all the axes to be found outside the monument's summit equals 536.33 t, which approaches the length of the entire monument's N/S axis. In addition, the combined length of all four of Borobudur's rectangular gallery perimeters equals 5,362.9 talas (Table II-1), which is almost ten times the length of the N/S axis (537.68 t). The four dimensions presented in the table below come from a survey report issued by the Borobudur Reconstruction Committee (CC/III/7/1974:225 - 229); they represent the expected measurements to be obtained upon completion of the restoration project. Table
II-1. Static Dimensions of the Gallery Perimeters 4th gallery:
247.33 m/1,080.0 t Total: 1228.1 m/5,362.9 t It is possible that the number 536.3 and its multiples represents the incorporation of an calendrical function that was intended to combine the 354-day lunar cycle with a solar period that is defined by the two solstice sunrises that mark the Sun's northern and southern limits of travel along the eastern horizon (354 + 182.5 = 536.5 t). In this case, it may be the architect's attempt to reconcile the 360-day civil calendar with the lunar cycle (360 + 177.18 = 537.2 t). On the Indonesian island of Bali, an intercalation process was formerly used to periodically correct for differences between the secular 360-day calendar and the annual cycles of the Sun and Moon. For example, two calendar dates were formerly made to fall on the same lunar day at 63-day intervals to provide a close approximation of synchronicity (360.074 days vs. 360 days). In addition, an intercalenary month was inserted every three or four years to maintain synchronicity between the lunar calendar and the annual solar cycle. |
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The perimeter dimensions for each of Borobudur's four bas-relief galleries assume a dynamic aspect whenever celebrants complete their circuits around the gallery walkways. The direction of this path, as well as the number of times that each gallery must be walked, is determined by the bas-relief panels that are located on both sides of each gallery walkway. In order to "read" the entire collection of reliefs within each gallery in the correct order, worshippers were compelled to complete their circuits around the four galleries a total of ten times in the clockwise direction. "Spaces become dynamic when by their very nature they force anyone entering them to proceed in a certain direction--as through a passage, up a flight of steps, along a succession of interconnected rooms.... Borobudur's path...does not follow a smoothly drawn spiral. The gateways and the steps between the various sectors of galleries strengthened the labyrinth-like character of the layout although all of the stairs could not possibly have been used when a believer, over and over again, performed the pradakshina through the galleries. The succession of reliefs, forming one identical story which completely neglected the presence of additional stairs, clearly indicates the direction of the actual path." (1) This dynamic action on the part of each worshipper effectively doubles the length of the fourth gallery pathway from 1,080 t to 2,160 t. The celebrant then completes a second circuit with a dimension of 2,160 talas by passing through the monument's summit. Its beginning point is located on the inside-facing side of the eastern gateway to the summit. The celebrant then completes one circuit around each of the four platforms at the summit, with an additional half turn around the main stupa platform to allow him or her to exit through the gateway to the west, the point where the circuit of 2,160 talas terminates. Table II-2: The Summit's Circumambulation Path East axis:
90.61 t Estimated total: 2,161.5 tala * (*) This result is based on an estimate of the platform circumferences based on the average of their major and minor axes. Each worshipper also passed by a Buddha image to the right side of his or her body a total of 2,160 times between the time that they enter Borobudur's galleries until the tenth and final circuit has been completed at the fourth gallery level. Table II-3: Number of Buddha Statues Passed (Gallery Levels) Statues
- Statues - Total 1st gallery
path: 104 - 328 (x4) = 1312 In addition, the sub-multiple 216 is an intrinsic part of the architectural plan. On the mathematical level it is the product of the three numbers that define the monument's proportions of foot, body and head in both the vertical and horizontal planes (4 x 6 x 9 = 216). It has also been embedded into the monument's lower terraced levels, where a total of 216 steps and landings are located. By contrast, the summit itself contains 73 steps and 16 landings, while to the outside of the rectangular galleries there are 55 additional staircases and landings. In its entirety, monument presents a total of 360 levels to the four cardinal directions. Table II-4: Monument Steps and Landings Upper Round Terrace Platforms (Head) -------- EAST SOUTH WEST NORTH Steps
17 18 19 19 (73) Lower Galleries (Body) Steps
48 49 49 50 (196) Promenade/Outer Structure (Foot) Steps
12 11 12 12 (47) Combined Subtotals Steps
77 78 80 81 (316) One possible
explanation for the recurrence of the number 216 and its multiples
comes from the Indian system of time reckoning: Breathe in, hold, and breathe out. For the yogins of India, these three acts comprise one complete cycle of time in microcosm. Prior to the invention of watches and clocks, the passage of time was defined by the measured breaths or "prana" of the meditating yogin. The "hour" of Indian time-reckoning was called the muhurta, which had a duration that was equivalent to 48 minutes according to time as it is measured in the modern world. A single day consisted of 30 of these time periods. The muhurta was in turn broken down into 720 units of respiration. One equinoctial day consisted of 21,600 breaths: 10,800 breaths of daylight and 10,800 breaths of darkness. Moreover, the 360-day year of ancient India consisted of 10,800 muhurtas (360 x 30), or 7,776,000 breaths (360 x 21,600). Table II-5: Indian Time Reckoning in Units of Respiration 10 long
syllables = 1 respiration or prana (four seconds) As we have previously seen, the vastupurusa mandala that once served as a cosmic schematic for laying out temple foundations has inherited certain traditions from the Vedic altar of sacrifice, including the incorporation of units of time as the basis for its overall construction. Therefore, Borobudur's dimensional reflection of numerical units that are part and parcel of the ancient Hindu time reckoning system is entirely consistent with what we might expect to find. By following time's pathways, the celebrant thereby assimilates all the constituent parts of the Cosmic Man's body and brings them back to the cosmic center. In the Buddhist sense, this assimilation also includes all the Buddha images, bas-reliefs, unfolding of life-force in all its teeming variety, which all are aspects of the Absolute essence of the primordial being that is at times identified as the Mahapurusha, the great male being within whose body all that exists participates. In the Lankavatara Sutra he is called the Mind-King Buddha Vairaja, in the scriptures of Shingon Buddhism he is Mahavairocana, or in the Old Javanese Sang Hyang Kamahayannikkan he is known as Divarupa. As the first and foremost of the Tathagatas, the primordial Adi-Buddha is the formless and soundless ocean of Absolute Being that penetrates and embraces both the universe as macrocosm as well as the microcosmic heart of each and every individual being. |
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The third gallery perimeter has a total length of 1,298.42 talas, a number that possibly was intended to express a sub-multiple of the duration of the second of four World Ages or "Yugas," according to the principles of Hindu time reckoning. Called the Dvapara Yuga, this particular time period is said to have a duration of 1,296,000 years. However, in order to read all of this gallery's reliefs in the correct order, the celebrant must complete a total of two circuits around this gallery, a dynamic action that effectively doubles the perimeter length to 2,596.85 t, a figure for which I shall later give a possible explanation. The second gallery perimeter equals 1,442.6 talas, or about 360.6 talas per monument wall, a number that echoes the many other examples of the numerical theme of 360 that we have previously encountered. The required 2x circumambulation of this gallery once again dynamically doubles the length of the circuit to 2885.2 t, or 721.3 t per monument side, echoing the numerical theme of 72 and its multiple 720, which appears in material form in the total number of reliefs that portray stories from the Jatakas and Avadanas. In the Essence of Buddhahood, it has also been demonstrated that the sixteen stupas located on the summit's third terrace platform collectively produce a mandala-like pattern that consists of 720 elements: 16 statues of the Buddha Vairocana and 704 square-shaped piercing holes. With regards to the number 72, elsewhere we have encountered a number of different material counterparts: there are the 72 stupas and images at the summit, the 72 bas-reliefs in the fourth-gallery series that presents the Vows of the Bodhisattva Samatabhadra, the groupings of the 72 yakshas and apsaras -- and the 72 gandharvas and apsaras -- that grace each of the four walls of the monument's outermost enclosure, as well as the 72 squares that comprise the outermost tier of the monuments 19 x 19 grid. At Borobudur, the rhythms of the unfolding of the Absolute into the phenomenal world of space/time are repeated over and over again. Borobudur's first gallery perimeter has a static dimension of 1,541.8 talas. However, this particular gallery requires a total of four circumambulations, because its balustrade and the gallery walls themselves each present reliefs in both upper as well as lower registers. If we consider this process as having the nature of a two-fold division, then the length of each of the paths would be 3,083.6 t. The presence of this number in conjunction with the reliefs pertaining to the Buddha Sakyamuni's past lives just might represent a long-term Hindu time called the Duration of Manu (Manvantara), which equals 308,448,000 years. In this case, the path perhaps would symbolize one discrete segment of the innumerable eons that it took the Bodhisattva to realize Buddhahood. In its presence of the stages that comprise the path to Buddhahood, Borobudur is the teaching machine for all those who follow the path that it displays. According to the Old Javanese Sang Hyang Kamahayannikkan, "By the grace of the guru Buddhahood has been gained in this very existence though it takes innumerable eons." As the ever vigilant reader has no doubt already noticed, only the fourth gallery perimeter is “dead on” accurate with respect to matching the time cycles that these paths may have been meant to symbolize. If the architect intended to embed time cycles into Borobudur's architectural plan then why would he have done so with greater precision? First of all, we must consider the fact that Borobudur has already undergone centuries of ruin and neglect as well as two major reconstruction efforts. Although the restorers took great pains to ensure that their efforts remained faithful to the architect's intentions, it would be unrealistic to expect absolute perfection in each and every aspect of the results. In addition, perfection is reserved for deities according to the Hindu/Buddhist way of thinking, whereas imperfection is the natural organic state of the world of living beings. Due to the chaotic nature of life-force, the examples we encounter in the phenomenal world seldom if ever match the theoretical models of scientists. For example, mathematicians have long been aware that ideal mathematical principles such as the ‘phi proportion’ and the Fibonacci series of numbers are mirrored to some extent in the cellular structures of living things. Although no single specimen ever conforms precisely to structures that have been predicted mathematically, the greater the number of divisions investigated, the closer that the natural order comes to arriving at mathematical perfection. The astronomers of ancient India were well aware that the cycles of the Sun and Moon did not precisely match the mathematical "perfection" of the 360-degrees of the circle. "The 'perfect' cycle of the year is 360 days, one for each of the degrees in the circle of the ecliptic; but a modicum of imperfection necessarily inheres in all perfected things, since if they were purely perfect...they would not 'exist' but disappear into the world of the intelligibles, where alone unalloyed perfection can abide. As with every existent thing, the cycle of the year, if perfect, would revert to the realm of pure forms; it exists - 'stands outside' its Form because it partakes of imperfection, signaled by the residue of five and a quarter days that remain after the cycle has run its course. Unless a residue remains when the cycle has concluded the cycle would be complete, perfect, finished, and time would have a stop. But as there is a remainder there is no end, the cycle recommences, and time continues on. The residue is thus the seed of the next cycle, without which the cyclic process would be sterile. No further motion is possible without the discrepancy between one cycle and the next. Without a remainder to form the germ of its continuance, the Wheel of Time would halt." (2) The concept of the residue is also reflected in one of India's ancient Vedic texts, which states that “Name and form are in the Residue. The world is in the Residue. Indra and Agni are in the Residue. The Universe is in the Residue. Heaven and Earth, all Existence is in the Residue. The water, the ocean, the moon and the wind are in the Residue.” (3) Mahayana Buddhism has adopted a similar view that appears in several different contexts. For example, the Zen artist always intentionally includes a flaw in each work of art to ensure that his work is a reflection of the non-perfection of the human condition. There is also a tradition under which the Bodhisattvas are defined as "Buddhas with remainder," that is, the residue without which they would be unable to remain in the world to seek the salvation of others. The Buddha, however, having attained perfection and no longer ruled by, or dependent upon, causes and conditions, physically departs the world of men at the dissolution of his one remaining residue--his material body. In terms of Hindu temple architecture, the residue is "the remainder [that] assures the fitness of the structure in the order of things and the well-being of the builder and his surroundings...." (4) Similar beliefs are still held by the Hindu Balinese architect, who follows the ancient rules delineated in the Old Javanese Asta Kosala Kosali, which “...specifies that to each basic measurement a small adjustment, called a ‘urip’ must be added to help bring the building to life later on." (5) The Balinese architect guides the owner of the building inward to pace off the desired number of units, which have a symbolic significance. The dimensions equate to the days of the Balinese 8-day week, each day of which is associated with a specific direction and its ruling deity. Each of these symbolic measurements is finished off through the addition of a urip. (6) The minor measurement discrepancies that are to be found on the monuments lower levels represent the residue that brings the monument into the world and allows it to breathe. If we occasionally encounter a "perfect" measurement such as the 1,080 tala of the fourth gallery perimeter, its perfection serves to delineate the boundary that separates the heaven at the summit from the terrestrial realm below. |
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Photo II-1 (right): A Buddha niche topped by three jewels or "ratnas." Others have suggested that this "tri-ratna" motif was intended to identify the 104 images on this walls as Manusi Buddhas--the terrestrial manifestations of the Jinas of the four cardinal directions. The architect may have even supplied us a visual cue for indicating the desired number of circumambulations. Unlike the Buddha niches of the four bas-relief galleries, which are decorated with miniature stupas, the architect has decorated each of the statue niches that line the monument's outermost walled perimeter with three rectangular protrusions. This "tri-ratna" theme was likely intended to represent the "three jewels" of the Buddhist faith: Buddha (body), dharma (speech) and sangha (mind), which in certain Vajrayana texts is also represented as the Buddha's three "mystery bodies" of nirmanakaya, sambhogakaya and dharmakaya. Photo II-2 (right): On each of the remaining
rectangular terraces, the Buddha niches are top A x3 circumambulation of the promenade (1792.75 t) dynamically creates a path length of 5378.25 t, which is not only equivalent to ten times the length of the monument's N/S axis (5378.25 t vs. 537.7 t) but also may be linked to ten times the sum of one complete lunar year and one half of a solar year (354.3607 + 182.62815 = 536.9888). Using this 3x circumambulation of the promenade as the basis for our calculations, the total length of one complete circuit through the entire monument that is the sum of all paths--from one's entry step onto the group-level staircase in one's last step off the ground-level staircase in the west--equals 21,629.17 t, including the required additional half-turn around the main stupa platform that allows one to exit to the west in conformance with the movements of the Sun, Moon and planets. Borobudur's sum of all paths therefore closely approximates the number of respirations in a day (21,600), according to the principles of Hindu time-reckoning. Moreover, the total number of Buddha images that one would pass along the way equals 3,584 (Table II-6), which replicates the total number of perforation holes that are featured in the 72 stupas at the monument's summit (64 x 56 + 44 x 16 = 3,584; see the description provided in The Essence of Tathagatahood, Part III). Each worshipper assimilates each of these reflected images from the summit during the course of his or her ascent and returns them to their point of origin. There is an astronomical postulation of certain Hindu astronomers that can be used to account for the difference between the path length of 21,629 talas and the 21,600 "perfection" of India's time reckoning system. But it is not yet time to examine certain statements that appear in Bhaskaracarya's Siddhata Siromani, which are reserved for the fifth and final segment of this article series. In addition, the distance of 21,629 talas provide the means whereby the entire ambulatory path at Borobudur can become defined in terms of its relationship with the summit's main stupa platform. By means of the following, the entire path can be elegantly reduced to one of two simple mathematical formulas, with the accuracy of the results depending on how many decimal places one wishes to use in performing the calculations, inclduing the fact that we do not know what value for pi the architect had employed for this purpose. The sum of all paths at Borobudur Main stupa diameter x pi^5 70.68t x pi^5 = 21,629.5t = Main stupa circumference x pi^4) 222.05 x pi^4 = 21,629.5 Table II-6: Number of Buddha Statues Passed (Entire Monument) Statues
- Statues - Total Promenade path: None - 432 (x3) = 1296 1st gallery path: 104 - 328
(x4) = 1312 1st round terrace : None 72
(x1) = 72 Total: (x16) = 3,584 |
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Borobudur's sum of all paths also divides neatly into various segments that potentially represent solar and/or lunar time cycles. For example, the solar path that begins when the worshipper steps onto the first step of the plinth that surrounds the entire monument and ends at the entranceway to the second gallery equals 11,690.25t, which is also 32 x 365.2563t. In this instance, the multiplier 32 is of potential significance with regards to the 32 distinguishing marks of the Mahapurusha and the solar year number perhaps an indication of the Buddha Sakyamuni's designation as the "Kinsman of the Sun." At the same time, however, this particular path segment can also be expressed as 33 x 354.25t, with the latter number being a close approximation of the annual lunar cycle of 354.36 days. The number 33 also is a numerical symbol for the year, according to the composer of the Satapatha Brahmana. "The 33-fold is the year: 24 months, six seasons, day and night and the Earth itself." In addition, the composer of this text states that the Sun is the "34-fold" one who encompasses the other 33, which also happens to be exactly what we see when we examine this particular dimension as it unfolds at Borobudur. Another discrete division of the sum of all paths at Borobudur extends from the second gallery doorway all the way up to the main stupa platform, which equals 9,924.12 t, or 28 x 354.36 t. In this instance, the number 28 may symbolize the plane of the ecliptic that is defined by the 28 asterisms or nakshatras of Hindu astronomy. There are several material indications on display at Borobudur that reinforce our impression that the second gallery walkway was intended to separate the rectangular terrace levels into two discrete segments. This is how things appear when we view the arrangement of Buddha statues in Borobudur's architectural plan when it is presented in schematic form. (7)
Figure II-1. A schematic of the organization of Borobudur's Buddha images.
Perhaps
the frieze of parrots was intended to signal the beginning of the
worshipper's ascent into the realm of the sky. This concept is
reflected in the ritual of building the Vedic fire altar, which
symbolizes Prajapati's body of sacrifice in a disposition of bricks
that represent various units of time. In the Satapatha Brahmana,
the first layer of the altar symbolizes Yet another visual indicator appears on the second gallery balustrade opposite the parrots, which feature 'decorative panels' of vases filled with flowers (below). Higher up the monument, the decorative panels on the third and fourth gallery balustrades switch to tree themes, perhaps to signal an ascent from sea level to the slopes of a forest-covered mountain. The
existence of this dividing line at Borobudur has a mathematically
The area of the
main stupa platform can be calculated using the following formula, which appears in various
Hindu mathematical texts: From this we
subtract the area occupaied by the main stupa platform itself. Less the area
of the main stupa platform
Borobudur's architectural plan expresses the solar and lunar cycles in material form as well. In Borobudur: A Monument of Mankind, Dr. Soekmono--the Chairman of the Borobudur Reconstruction Committee--states that the monument originally had a total of 1,416 triangular antefixes located above the gallery reliefs, which equates to 354 per monument side. The ornaments are an alternate representation of the kala (Sanskrit for time) that adorn Borobudur's gateway arches. In certain contexts, the composers of the Hindu Puranas use the word kala to refer to the phase changes or "digits" of the monthly lunar cycle. (9)
Among the other material indicators of the sun's presence at Borobudur are the makara heads that adorn Borobudur's gateways, staircases and promenade level waterspouts, which all have small lions perched in their mouths (Photo II-7). The makara's celestial counterpart is the constellation Capricorn, which provides the celestial backdrop for the rising Sun at the time of the December solstice. The swallowing of the sun by celestial makara signals the "death" of the solar cycle that is in progress. Six months later, when the Sun reached the zenith of its annual cycle, it rose against the celestial backdrop of the constellation Gemini, which marked its arrival at its northernmost limit of travel along the eastern horizon at the time of the June solstice (See Photo II-8). "In this relation the Simhamukha, the head of the Lion, the Solar animal, is the station of the sun, and the Makara (Capricorn), the gate of the gods, their way of ascent," states Hindu temple authority Stella Kramrisch. (10) At Borobudur, the small lions in the jaws of the makaras may also symbolize those who have managed to escape the jaws of desire--the makara, after all, is the emblem of Kama, the Lord of Desire--and are in the process of making their ascent to apex of heaven. In ancient India and elsewhere, the lion not only symbolized the Sun, but signaled the presence of the universal sovereign or "chakravartin." Buddhists know the Sakyamuni not only as the "Lion of the Sakya clan" but also as the "Kinsman of the Sun" (Adityabandu). In Vajrayana
Buddhism, the lion's solar stature is reflected by the fact that
he serves as the celestial mount of the Jina of the zenith Vairocana.
On the other end of Borobudur's four ground-level staircase banisters
a lion's head has been carved that is engaged in the act of
swallowing the makara's tail. The entire ensemble also appears on each
of Borobudur's gateways, with the leonine kala head at the top and with
twin makaras to either side that also hold small lions in their mouths. Another discrete division of Borobudur's sum of all paths presents a figure that may have been intended to represent the duration of the Krita Yuga, the first of the four World Ages in a Kalpa according to Indian cosmology. The Krita Yuga is said to have a duration of 1,728,000 terrestrial years, while the total length of this path division is --from the center of the fourth gallery walkway outward equals 17,278.05 talas. J. L. Moens (1950/51) speculated that Borobudur had been extensively modified by successive Sailendra monarchs in order to adapt the monument for hosting rituals involving the royal succession. In this respect, this dimension might have been intended to emphasize the king's role in the symbolic re-establishment of the Dharma in his kingdom in the "Golden Age" of the Krita Yuga, during which Dharma walks on all four legs, whereas only on three, two, or one of his legs during the remaining three yugas, respectively. In this case, the entire path segment might represent a symbolic "turning back of the clock" to the Golden Age by the chakravartin monarch. (11) Table II-7. Dimensions of the Rectangular Terrace Levels
Many other segments of the plan could be presented to illustrate Borobudur's expression of overlapping path lengths that exhibit a potential calendrical significance. For brevity's sake, however, we shall examine just two more possibilities, reserving additional examples in a future appendix to this article. The sum of all paths between the staircases at promenade level, divided by the length of the east/east component of this path, produces a ratio of 29.52:1,perhaps to reflect with the duration of the monthly lunar cycle of 29.53 days. In addition, the east and west segments of the axial path itself, neatly divides into 354.4 t components, which further reinforces the suggested lunar symbolism.
Figure II-2. Measurement of the gallery axes (in m). The entire monument incorporates the lunar cycle in the East/West path segment, which has total length of 354 t x 2. In addition, the ratio of 29.52:1 is produced when the sum of the monument's remaining paths is divided by the East/West segment pictured above. The same results are obtained, whether we use the Javanese tala or the meter of the modern world. The distance between the inside wall of the perimeter surrounding the summit and the first platform supporting the initial ring of 32 stupas is 3.18m, or 13.89 talas. The length of the path, in talas, between the entrance into the second rectangular terrace below and the first platform at the summit is about 7,776 talas (19,452.24 t + 13.89 t - 11,690.25 t = 7775.88 t - See Table II-7 above), a number of some significance with regards to the Hindu time-reckoning system (See Table II-5 above).
Figure II-2. The above figures in meters were measured in segments while moving down each of the four axial staircases of the monument.
Figure II-3. The above figures or the area outside of Borobudur's main perimeter are in meters. Why would Borobudur's architect have gone to such great lengths to incorporate various time cycles into his temple plan? The answer is to be found in the realization that the builders of Borobudur considered the monument to not only be the abode of their principal Buddhist divinity but also serve as his body in architectural form. Elsewhere in The Essence of Tathagatahood, I have outlined a number of comparisons that can be made between the design of Borobudur's summit and the Lankavatara Sutra. At the same time, however, the article pointed out that other relationships have been identified which are reflected in a family of Vajrayana texts that elevate Vairocana to the position of the supreme Buddha and delineate mudras for the Buddhas of the cardinal directions that mirror what can be seen at Borobudur. For the moment we shall limit our exploration to Java's own Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan (SHK), which consists of a series of quotations from various Vajrayana Buddhist scriptures, each of which is followed by a short commentary in Old Javanese. Some of the scholars who have studied the SHK believe that the introductory portions of this text date from the 9th century CE. According to the SHK, the mystic syllables "am-ah" represent the inhaling and exhaling breaths of the meditating yogin. The SHK's composer calls the inhaling breath the "sun body" (Suryarupa), while the exhaling breath is called the "moon body" (Candrarupa). During meditation, the mystic syllables “am-ah” spread throughout the yogin's body and then outwardly by means of nine "gates" or orifices. By merging the lunar and solar breaths, the yogin produces the divine knowledge that becomes the Supreme Buddha, which the text calls "Divarupa." Considering the context within which the SHK presents this particular name, it is entirely reasonable to suggest that Divarupa means the "Light Body." (12) We now have a working hypothesis for why Borobudur's dimensions express units of lunar and solar time. They are the expression of the pathways of the Cosmic Buddha whose body fills the universe with light. Perhaps Borobudur was constructed to provide the "Universal Essence" of the Cosmic Buddha with an architectural body, one which the Javanese considered to be a living, "breathing" entity from the very moment when the Sailendra gurus invited Him to descend and take up residence. The galleries are his major arteries, the 100 waterspouts the veins, and the E/W staircase axis the Brahmasthana-line of his spinal cord. The twin gateway makaras and serpentine banisters on the staircases are the two main yogic energy channels of his monumental body. Called the ida and pingala, they wrap around and thus encapsulate the spine itself. Within these two psychic channels, the lunar and solar breaths of the Cosmic Buddha become regulated by means of yogic meditation, which causes the "Light-body" of Divarupa to burst forth from the top of his monumental head. This "sun of a thousand spokes" radiates outward through the lunar (square) and solar (diamond) piercing holes of the 72 stupas into all directions simultaneously. These outward luni-solar breaths condense to form the life-granting elixir called the amrita, which is responsible for the abundance of life that springs forth in the surrounding kingdom and the world at large. His inward breaths are the pious pilgrims who, like lotus blossoms striving to reach the light, ascend his spinal cord and move along his main arteries while conducting yogic exercises that bring their own breathing into conformance with the cosmic breath, which leads to the outshining of the Divarupa "Light-body." In this manner Borobudur ceases to be anything else than Buddhahood in one’s own body. Through the process of assimilation, which is based on the establishment of a magical equivalence between the pilgrim and the level upon which he finds himself, the yogin and the mandala have become One. As the Japanese Zen master Suzuki Roshi pointed out many years ago, it marks the transition from hearing a bird chirping in the forest to “Being the forest.” Go to: In Pursuit of Sacred Science, Part III
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(1) Bernet Kempers, A.J. Ageless Borobudur. Servire: Wassenaar (1976):178. (3) The Atharva Veda, XI. 9.1-2. (4) Kramrisch, Stella. The Hindu
Temple. Calcutta: University (1946):38-39 [vol. I]. (5) Eiseman, Fred B. Jr. Bali:
Sekala and Niskala. Berkeley: Periplus (1990):194 [vol. II]. (7) The lotus flower friezes bring to mind a Buddhist tradition that compares the growth of the lotus to three different states of consciousness. The first is the lotus that remains mired in the mud, representing the deluded mind. The second lotus is flower merely breaks the surface of the water but does not go any further, which represents the mind that is only beginning to search for the truth. The third is the lotus that grows far out of the water, reaching in its quest to reach the Sun. (8) Borobudur's lowest two tiers of Buddha images total 208, a number that the architect may have intentionally used to define that area of the monument in which all reliefs pertaining to the historical Buddha are located (first gallery and second gallery balustrade). The perimeter of Borobudur's plinth, which marks the furthest extension of the monument proper not including the ground-level staircases, has a total perimeter of 2,080 talas. The number 208 also may have been used in reference to a solar cycle involving sun zenith events. See the Introduction to the Javanese Temple for further information. (9) Soekmono, R. Borobudur: A Monument of Mankind. Paris: UNESCO Press (1976): 18. (10) Kramrisch 1946:329. However, the "death" of the reigning Sun is followed by the "birth" of the next in a never-ending succession of solar cycle. Rebirth takes place when the Sun departs the constellation Makara in late January, reaching the apex of its journey to the north six months later, when it is "housed" by the constellation Simha, the "Lion." (11) Moens, J.L. "Borobudur, Mendut dan Pawon." Tijdschrift Voor Indische Taal-, Land- end Volkenkunde, LXXXIV (1950-1951):393-403. For the symbolic role of the number 1728 and its multiples at Angkor Wat, see Mannikka, Eleanor. Angkor Wat: Time, Space and Kingship. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press (1996):50-52 and 107-108. (12) Chandra, Lokesh. Cultural Horizons of India. New Delhi: Aditya Prakishan (1995):374-376. See also Woodward, Hiram Jr. "On Borobudur's Upper Terraces." Oriental Art, Autumn, 1999:36-38. |
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The
traditional method of rendering homage to a Buddha image or his temple
body architectural form is to circumambulate the body of the Tathagata
three times in the clockwise direction. There are several reasons for
suggesting that this was the prescribed method of walking around the
wide promenade that surrounds Borobudur. 
One
potential visual indicator is the presence of a continually running
frieze of parrots that is located above the second gallery relief
panels. On the other rectangular terrace levels, however, the
continuously-running friezes consists of lotus flower decorations. (
the terrestrial Earth as well as Prajapati's feet, while the
second layer--laid down upon the first--symbolizes the wind, as well as
the area between Prajapati's feet and his waist. "A nest, as it were,
is indeed the second layer." 
onstrated through the use of the follow
ratio-based method. The diameter of the main stupa platform at the
bottom of its base where it
meets the surrounding floor is the better measurement in terms of
evaluating area. 
The Javanese have long used the tree to symbolize the axis of
the cosmic abode of the gods--Mount Meru-- as well as the axis of time
itself. The traditional Javanese shadow play features the puppet of a
tree that is used to indicate time intervals, the very theme that is
also suggested by organization of the images that appear in the
'decorative' reliefs of the fourth gallery balustrade. Several of the
relief panels on this balustrade feature a six/six division of human
figures separated by the trunk of a tree, a theme that suggests the
structure of the year, divided in half by the sunrise of the solstice
or equinox.
