The most remarkable and holiest universe of the Buddhists on Java formerly arose on the Kedu plain, having at its center the great stupa of Borobudur. Many other temples were also raised around this religious center, Shaivaite as well as Buddhist in their religious conformity. Of all that still remains, there are two temples that, in all probability, stood in a closer relationship with the great stupa (of Borobudur) than the others, and by all rights are its products: the small front temple of Candi Pawon and even further to the east, as well as on the other side of the Progo River, the temple complex of Candi Mendut.  

Concerning the consistency between Mendut and Borobudur as well as the manner in which these two sanctuaries secure a sense of completion for each other, we will demonstrate shortly. These two holy buildings -- the great stupa and the temple -- came into existence at approximately the same time, with the temple of Mendut perhaps being a little older than Borobudur.... I shall therefore provide an account of what is to be found at the Mendut-complex, beginning with the great temple itself; although no longer in its original condition it still exists in a state of wholeness.

Europeans were unaware of the existence of the Mendut temple until 1834; until then, only a few natives had perceived the true nature of the hillock upon which their cattle once grazed in contentment. It also supplied them with very useful materials out of which they formerly built their homes.

The introduction of the coffee cultivation to the island of Java cause a previously wild region to become more inhabitable. As a consequence, the temple was exposed by the former head Resident of the Kedu District, Mr. Hartmann, during the afore-mentioned year. In 1838, the existence of Mendut was first disclosed to the world in a short article that appeared in the new Tijdschrift for Nederland’s India publication, followed by an article from the hand of Ds. Buddingh.

To give an idea of what curiosity could still then summon concerning what the Hindu antiquities at their best could motivate, we turn to the description of the three large images in the temple’s interior, which were described in the first account at considerable length, and which contemplated whether the middle image of the Buddha and the remainder of the triad represented a “...family-scene, where the man and husband is mutually engaged in an important conversation with the other members of the household.”

Especially due to the presence of these images, but also due to the beautiful set-up of the entire tableau as a single work of art, Mendut continually attracts and powerfully concentrates one’s attention, despite the fact that the earliest government inspectors were unable to accurately describe many of the characteristics of Hindu Javanese antiquities. Mendut’s earliest visitors inspected her contents with dignity and to a high degree aroused interest in their merit.

By 1850, however, it was decided that it would be worth the investment to have a set of reliable drawings made of the structure. The artist Wilsen ¾ who was then charged with producing drawings of the Borobudur-reliefs ¾ received the assignment of making the first sketches of Candi Mendut. Back then, the temple still stood in the condition in which it had been left following its uncovering in 1834.

Then in 1882 it was agreed that some measures should be taken in order to insure that the roof, as well as the images within the temple, would be protected from further rainwater damage. However, nothing further happened until 1893, when observers reported that the partitions had begun to buckle and an intervention would be required to forestall the further collapse of the monument.

After several plans had been presented, in 1897 the restoration effort finally began in earnest. At first this operation was undertaken for the sole purpose of conserving what still stood, that is, to prevent any further collapse of the structure. Then in 1901, when Dr. Brandes took control of the entire operation, a partial dismantling of the temple was also undertaken.

Activities were suspended at Mendut in 1904, but in 1908 the labor was taken up once again, this time under the management of T. van Erp. He was only able to complete those measures having to do with the conservation of what was then in existence, because the Dutch minister of the colonies explicitly refused to fund a complete reconstruction in accordance with the Indian Regeering’s estimates, which would have allowed the plan developed by Dr. Brandes to have been fully realized. 

We have taken the time to notify readers of the course of these matters because it provides an explanation for the condition in which we find Mendut today. Although inferior to what might otherwise have been possible, it is a situation which nevertheless arouses our admiration for the genuinely sublime components of the temple’s structural design. What entirely concerns us here are those elements that are less than satisfactory.

With regards to the Mendut, one must eventually arrive at the conclusion that either too little ¾ or too much ¾ intervention has taken place here. In the expectation of what would have followed a complete reconstruction effort, the work has already gone further than a mere consolidation of the still-standing structure. Through the execution of various conservation measures, Mendut has entirely lost its initial appeal as a firm and solid ruin by its transformation into a somewhat squat building of which the main impression is that all has not been finished. Not a single division has obtained, as a partial compensation for its loss of charm, what the reconstruction effort could have restored to the temple through the reassembly of the now missing portal and by putting up the highest roof tier, the top-rewarding, large bell-shaped stupa, and above all, the small bell-shaped roof structures that are now missing.

Had all this been accomplished, then one would have been able to obtain a visual conformation of the old sanctuary’s originally tall silhouette, and an account would have been given of what effect the original construction master had intended his creation to have on the minds of its contemplators. But broken away from of its natural right of repair and now sharing newly-made ornaments mixed in with the old originals, the half-reconstruction that has been applied sells Mendut short in every respect.

One example of repairs that can go wrong is the opening for light that was thought to be above the entrance to the interior. If the plan of 1904 had been implemented, a portal with an incorrect crown and a remote third roof of profoundly inaccurate form would have been added to the monument.

With regard to these and other examples, the Mendut is a cautionary example of how dangerous it can be to carry out a reconstruction, even when the old situation, due to considerable perspicacity, has been discovered from so much (seemingly) certain data. Yet not even the smallest doubtful point was present in the whole reconstruction plan. The advantages of the implementation of such a transformation of the monument do not even out face-to-face with what has been lost by proceeding in such a manner. Thus we believe that only in exceptional cases ¾  rightly done at Borobudur ¾ can the organization of Hindu Javanese reconstruction work go further than the preservation of the existing situation for the purpose of reducing further decline.

We therefore do not conceal the most regrettable fact that reconstruction efforts have been initiated at Mendut and that through such efforts an unsatisfactory whole has arisen. We must then consider some solution for completing the reconstruction. Although we might then obtain a still more false Mendut than the version that currently exists, at least it could provide the contentment that comes from viewing an aesthetically pleasing monument.

With the current situation of the temple already complete, little more can therefore be undertaken, a fact that is certainly no fault of the original construction master. Upon contemplating such an extraordinarily harmonious architecture, who would not obtain a charming impression of the ornamentation and arrive at the conclusion that details which appear to be meaningless, all, in fact, have an aim, and deliberate so, or otherwise they would not have been introduced in the first place.

The broad and serene basement projects outward by 3.70 m from off the main temple building. This square form has an extended projection on three of the four sides, excepting only the northwest front, where a greater projection has been introduced to accommodate the vestibule. These projections give an overall length to the sub-basement of 28 m (NW/SE) and a breadth of 24 m (NE/SW). The profiling is purely traditional in nature; on the foot between the ogee and the hemisphere there is a beautiful tooth-band. The proportions and shading functions of these elements are particularly harmonious with the heavy horizontal lines indicate the supporting character of the sub-basement splendidly.

Concerning the others, any risk of causing a visual depression of the square has been countered by the vertical distribution of the rising part and through the placement of the antefixes. As it happens, this part has been achieved as a result of the narrow pilasters, slim dividing panels and the placement of antefixes on the cornices ¾ particularly those that have been located above the panels, which extends them, as it were, and lends to the whole an appearance of rising. The standing vertical lines beside the pilasters, as well as the forward-projection of the panels themselves, also both serve to promote this impression. Concerning these pilasters ¾ one after the other to the sides of the entrance ¾ he who developed and approved them must have had the intention of treating all of the monument’s other pilasters in the same manner. 

The panel reliefs on the two sides and the back of the basement ¾ thirteen in number in each instance ¾ alternate between two types of decorative themes: they either portray human figures in spring ornaments or they portray hanging tapestries. The seated human figure, which serves as the central panel on the two sides and the back, faces forward and wears stocked leggings; the others kneel on one knee and are turned toward the middle of the building, upon which all attention is therefore established.

It also becomes apparent that these human figures surround the turn in ranks only, or as ranks of flowers in the (case of the) ornamental panels. One motif is much heavier than the other, and these sprigs with flowers have only been applied next to the central figures (on the back and sides) and at the angles of each projection, a natural consequence of the forward-stepping projection with respect to the whole side, and of the central panel with respect to the projection.

This effect is accentuated still more strongly by the placement of the panels containing hanging tapestries, among which some can be distinguished that are heavier, whle others are lighter. The lighter ones present a square pattern that is a distant variant of the tricoela chakra, formed entirely out of flowers. The heavier cruciform pattern has also been treated as a floral design, but one that is based on a chakra without a rim. In addition, these have been placed so that the heavier tapestries appear on either side of the central panel on each projection. For this reason, all the attention contracts to the middle, above which we find the main image at the center of each facade on the main sanctuary above. The entire ornamental composition of the sub-basement has therefore been laid out for the express purpose of preparing the contemplator for what awaits him or her above. The final attitude of mental concentration is assumed by the kneeling and seated characters, which also forces us to contemplate what is to come. In particular, this intention is conveyed on the back projection, where the figure in the central panel can be seen making a sembah with his two hands folded above his head. Rendered to the enthroned image on high, this deferential expression is an appeal to Avalokiteshvara, the foremost of the Bodhisattvas, for the purpose of obtaining his grant of authorization or clearance.

Mendut’s large front projection made another treatment style a necessity there. On the staircase (NW) side of the temple, one finds six panels: one on either side of the front projection, two on the sides of the projection, and two more on the body of the sub-basement itself. By placing the heavy, hanging-tapestry ornaments on the right-angles, the architect has cause the back-located areas to be brought forward, whereas by introducing the lighter ornaments on the sides of the front projection, he has caused these to withdraw somewhat there by a similar measure; on the other hand, the projection ends up comparing well with the facades of the temple sides, and for this reason the heavy chakra-motif has been chosen for placement against those sides.

What is most remarkable, however, is the character of the six other panels on the front projection, which are wiped with tapestry patterns, and are asymmetrical. On the left side of the projection one finds a floating celestial being, and on the right side there is a garuda; both gesture in the direction of the temple stairway, with the first grasped in upwards rising-spirals, and the second in rebellious-spirals.

From these areas one subsequently has, to the left between the spiral ornamentation of the entrance, and to the right between the sprig ornament belonging to the entrance, is a monkey (meerkat) that is looking back at the last kneeling human figure on the actual body of the sub-basement, who also is turned to the left and is gesturing in the same direction with his hand. The figure to the right is seated in sembah, devoted to awe-inspired humility.

There the asymmetrical nature of this troublesome set-up cannot have worked for the whole. If one stands by the main entrance right opposite the temple, the large pavement (at ground level) prevents closer access to the front of the projection and the extreme panels on the right angles at the same time are then more in one’s face; nevertheless there must be a specific reason for this strange set-up of the decorative paneling, because in Indian art symmetry plays such a dominating role.

Dr. Brandes has declared the following hypothesis in a sharp, shrewd and instructive study of the ornaments of Mendut’s sub-basement: One came to the temple along a northeast approach and therefore would have first seen the monkey looking back over his shoulder against the side of the projection to the left, an indication that is intensified by the horizontal score of the spirals. One was therefore compelled to go around to the left, thereby coming to a figure whose hand movements also indicate the same direction, which is in accordance with the pradakshina  path around the sanctuary. When they do this and then approach the other square panels on the front, then one encounters in the first place a human-like figure, who through his attitude exhorts the spectator to go with him. In this fashion, one is subsequently conducted to the front of the projection by the monkey who is looking around the corner. Here is the garuda who is about to fly around the sanctum. First of all, the horizontal spirals also establish the attention immediately upward and onto the staircase wing. After having visited these and in a natural manner also stood before the left staircase wing to absorb the knowledge, one then proceeded finally to the staircase where the floating deity encourages us to ascend. Once again this proposal is supported by his powerful climbing movements as well as the surrounding recalcitrant spirals. So one then entered at last onto the staircase, which conducts one into the sanctuary itself.

Concerning the ornamentation of the basement, for which an exhaustive discussion is to be allowed, here we find the principles to which the Central Javanese were themselves obliged to follow in the execution of the decorating arts. We see them applied in a perfect manner that ends up so excellent and in such a characteristically human way.

Just over 4.80 m broad, the staircase consists of fourteen steps that are flanked to either side by two firm, strongly outspread staircase wings, which have been decorated with the customary monster head placed above, whereas its body leads downstairs to a makara. Each of the makaras rest on supports; their bodies terminate at the top in the gaping maw of what appears to be a lion’s head. It habitually curls behind the bridge of the snout to lie on a round cushion, decorated on the sides and on the top of the head with a leaf motif; the area below the ear is entirely treated as an arabesque, and a pearl edge-line has been laid behind the downward-turned horn, from which further arabesque-work lies against the course of the staircase wing.

The outfacing sides of the staircase wings have been decorated with eleven panels each, in four ranges under one another; six are rectangular and, on the outer side, the other five are triangular (Plate XIII). In those panels are portrayed tales of the so-called Jatakas (“Birth Stories”), which present the former incarnations of the Buddha, for which we shall find a myriad of further examples at Borobudur. On the Mendut every panel seems to represent one complete Jataka. Rather than attempt to describe them all in detail, we shall simply give an impression of the pleasing reliefs that have been recovered, which we encounter here for the very first time. Although the precise identity of most of these tales has not yet been determined, they must, however, reflect historically known traditions.

On the left staircase wing the upper register is very damaged. In the rectangular scene a seated ascetic is engaged in conversation with three animals: a monkey, a jackal or a tiger, and a stag; on the triangular panel only the image of a tortoise in the water has been saved, perhaps an indication of the popular tale of how this animal once won a race with the garuda by each time having his nature companions emerge from the water from his own place and at the right time.

The large scene below does lure us to see an ascetic, recognizable by the (coil of matted locks) on top of the head braid; he is in conversation with a woman and behind them is a seated man in large vestments, sporting a halo, and making a respectful sembah gesture. He is none other than the King of the Devas Sakra, which becomes clear from to the right of him is his companion and trusted servant Airawata, with his winding elephant-proboscis head-ornament and large elephant ears clearly serving as the identifying characteristics (7LHa). Of the three tales presented in the third relief only the left one is completely certain; the Brahman is seated there with a crab, who grasps a snake with one claw and a bird with the other. This is the story of the Brahman and the amicable crab, who shows its gratitude by rendering a crow and a snake harmless, who were about to beset its benefactor.

As for the middle scene we must grope in the dark; here a man lies sleeping on the lap of a woman in a pendopo, whereas a second woman near a stove is occupied with a large pot at a fire stand.

In the triangle to the right, only a melancholy seated monkey remains visible; he is possibly the animal who in his greed to gather peas, lost the whole handful due to his desire to get just one more pea.

In the register underneath, a snake can be seen coming from a hole at first light, whereas a weasel or similar animal walks away; to the left a Brahman and another man are engaged in conversation and in which a dog and a bird also play a role, as well as one figure present with a large hand wrapped around an object with a overhead tilt.

Between these two unidentified scenes, we find an easily recognizable tale: that of the tortoise transported through the air by two geese. His mouth is clamped onto a stick, but when he starts to talk he then of course falls down to the ground and ends up prematurely dead. Here the animal is represented twice, the first time hanging to the stick, and then subsequently lying on the ground, where he falls prey to the on-rushing landsmen (Plate XIII, top).

On the right staircase wing absolutely no tale has been recognized so far. In the upper register only a lying four-footed animal is visible; the following relief presents a Brahman who is engaged in conversation with a woman who seems to be offering him something. Of the three scenes in the third relief, the right one contains a monk seated beneath a sun shade.... In the left scene is a snake with a ring in its mouth that is represented in comparison with a person flying through the air. In the middle scene a woman picks up a costly present from a box or is storing it inside, while a man carries objects attached to a pole mounted on a shoulder scud.

Although the contents of the final three panels of the bottom register are entirely clear, they have yet to be explained; in the triangle, an animal with a pierced snout pokes its head from a hole at first light, as a snake contrarily shows himself; in the middle panel is a seated monk who displays the gesture of refusal to a distinguished person and his two attendants just as the three men are removing themselves from the scene in the company of a large elephant. In the right panel is a person in a large gown; behind him is a disciple who carries arrows and bow while his master displays a sembah for an ascetic in meditation; in the middle of the scene is a scale and fruit stand on which a kakatoe sits, while a second kakatoe bird flies through the air in the direction of ascetic. Perhaps the same bird is here meant twice, the first time chasing a king who wishes to become an ascetic, and the second time perched near the hermit. Without knowing the different tales involved here, it remains clear from the manner of the Jataka histories that the animal and human worlds are placed beside each other in all their multi-colored diversity. What links it all together is the fact that it is the Buddha who plays the lead role in these tales of his former lives.

After going up the staircase, one enters a processional path that is 2.48 m broad, which to the outside and for the entire length of the loop is surrounded by a strongly profiled balustrade. The rising part of the balustrade is filled on both sides with square-flower ornamental decorations, whereas twelve makara-spouts ensure the proper drainage of the ambulatory path.

The main body of the temple building, which measures 13.70 m square, has small projections on the sides and the back and a large vestibule on the front, which raise themselves on a footer, but because of the usual profiling do not rise upwards without delay.  

Immediately above the floor of the ambulatory, on the right there is an upwards rising plinth that is divided into rectangular panels; by means of outward projecting lines and a frieze band with garlands, the passage is formed to the wainscot band, 1.20 m above the floor, and the ordinary chair-rail profile starts first, with ogee, hemisphere and inward projecting bands, from where the cube takes off in the ordinary manner.

The rectangular panels (Plate XIV), all in frames, consists of 31 in number [37 if one counts the small reliefs containing flowers on the sides of the cella’s projections -- editor], three times larger on each of the projecting sides and back, smaller at the angles, and once again three times larger on the sides of the portal projections. They are all honored in such a manner, that the middle one assumes a recalcitrant spiral to the sides that consists of one or two convolutions; widely varying flower and leaf motifs become wild spirals that are enlivened by parrots and other birds.

In the center of each relief one sometimes finds a purely decorative ornament, then in others one or another animal fable is indicated. Concerning the decorative ornamentations we may call them a shell and a crescent-moon, both resting on a lotus-blossom, as well as a jewel ornament and a bird. The animal fables are strongly in the majority, particularly on the sides; whereas on the sides of the entranceway and on the projection to the rear, decorative ornaments have been introduced exclusively.

With regards to the animal tales that are portrayed, most have been recognized by means of several Indian and Javanese fable collections. Thus in relief B6 is the monkey who removes the nest of the birds that had spot him; in B7 we see mice nibbling at the ties with which an elephant is bound, in this manner paying him back for a former benefit that they had received. Relief B8, in which a jackal and a lion are engaged in activity, is less clear; Relief B9 illustrates a jackal walking behind a steer in the conceited hope of that the bull’s scrotum will fall off.

In B10, a tiger holds onto a rope which links him to a miserable monkey, while a jumbo derrick looks on; this is the tale of how a monkey once pitted a timid, faint-hearted tiger against its jumbo derrick enemy, to persuade the tiger that he is its ally and due to the inoffensive nature of the venture he allows himself to be tied up, but without accounting for the cunningness of the jumbo derrick (goat), who upon seeing the two makes the following observation: “There is the monkey who always brings me two tigers to eat, but today he only brings me one.” The tiger runs away dragging behind him the monkey, which perishes miserably.

We will not follow with a description of the rest, one after the other, but will still mention the following:  

• B11: A snake with a squirrel.

• B13: A bird of prey catches two other small birds.

• B22: An elephant celebrates with others, very indistinct four-footed.

• B23: Two stags;.

• B24: A supine lion with a rosary on the leg compares three mice; the lion has become old, and in repentance for past sins he still does nothing in order to be able get hold of his unsuspecting prey.

• B25: A crab is busy pinching off the neck of a reiger (heron) that had taken the fish in honor from their pond, one by one, to a new place of residence, only to eat each one surreptitiously; but the crab, whose turn arose at the last, punishes the reiger instead.

• B26: The well-known tale of the alligator and the monkey; the first carries the second on his back to his house. The monkey hears that his friend’s plan is to acquire his monkey heart. To ensure his own security, security the monkey pretends that he has left his heart behind on the river bank. 

• B30: The bird with two heads -- one good, the other  bad -- of which the last causes perdition by allowing its better half to consume poisonous food. 

On the heavy main body with its dominating horizontal lines, the slim and climbing ornamention of the front-projecting fields has a particularly fortunate functioning. The outward projecting section at the center of each facade divides these automatically into three, one broad field between two narrower; to the front is narrow present and the vestibule has been only built onto the area otherwise occupied by the broad field (on the other three facades), with the narrow fields limited by the 4.40 m high anten, next to which on the interior side of the field is a narrow column with strongly climbing recalcitrant spirals that rise above small sitting lions.   

Beside either side of the field is a vase-formed pedestal, that elevates a slim pilaster with a capital that has been decorated with great care as acts as a support. Both support makara-heads that are broad, but very finely ornamented and rewarded with their faces to the front. As we also rightly noticed at Kalasan, makara-heads are accustomed to facing within; the monster head is in the middle, with big, heavy upper cheeks and overflowing leaf-work surpassing its hairdo, and with lotus flowers and garlands depending from its mouth in an arc.

Shining relief-work further fills the middle spaces of the panels. In the three middle fields it is each time a group consisting of a Bodhisattva or a Tara figure in the middle of other divinities as well as earthly worshippers and admirers; in each of the side panels at every turn, the slim figure of a Bodhisattva stands on a pedestal that is overshadowed by a sun shade.

At the center of the facade on the Northeast side is an eight-armed goddess who is seated on a lotus cushion in the Indian manner, which in turn rests on a pedestal. She is dressed in a large, bustling, long-flowing robe; behind her head she is a large halo and above that is a stylized sun shade and trees bedecked with hanging garlands. On the two sides of the goddess are standing male characters with halos, who are also wearing large long-flowing robes and carrying a fly whisk in the outer hand. To the side of each of these male figures there is a tenacious stem of a rising lotus. On the one side it is a red (padma), on the other side the blue (oetpala) lotus.

In the hands of the goddess are successively: (right) a shell, vajra, werprad and distinguished rosary; in the left she carries a vaguely round object, axe, and elephant hook, whereas the last hand has been knocked off, yet in the crack at the right a book is contained. On the basis of these attributes the goddess has been recognized by Dr. Foucher as Cunda. Deities float in the air on either side in a state of respectful deference, having been placed against a group of clouds as a cue for context.

On the reverse side of the building, the middle panel is limited at its base by palisades as the dissidence of a complete lotus pond. In addition to the flowers and stems that rise from the waters, there are three lotus cushions on stems and with the largest in the middle being held up by two naga serpent deities. Poised on the large seat with legs twisted under is the protagonist, dressed in large vestments and equipped with a halo, and the head ornament of braids. Of her four arms two are held in dhyana-mudra in the lap with a flat flower; the right after-arm holds a rosary and in the left is a book. The entire breast area has been mutilated, so that it cannot be seen whether a man or a woman is here meant; however all the commentators speak of a woman, and in that case we here also have Cunda in her genial, kind form. On each of the other two small lotus cushions is seated a worshipper dressed in large robes. The left one holds an elongated flower that ends in a bud, while the right figure’s flower stem ends in a jewel on a small lotus cushion. A tree arises to the outer side of each figure, on top of which also is the resting place for a gem, whereas at the foot of each tree is a pot containing treasures. A large tree with sun shade rises directly behind the goddess, and to either side are deities sitting on clouds. 

The Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara stands on a high pedestal in the middle scene on the sanctuary’s back wall. His feet rest on a lotus cushion, from which a garment depends; he wears large robe and has a halo. His head ornament is too damaged to allow us to see whether it bears the figurine of the Buddha Amitabha, but his remaining attributes leave no doubt as to this figure’s true identity.

The left after-hand holds a book, the right the rosary; the front-left the stem of the Bodhisattva’s uprising padma, next to which is a second stalk, the lotus flower of which supports a water-jug. The demolished right hand without doubt once displayed the vara-mudra. Beside the pedestal also stands a burner, to the other side a metal vase with a nozzle, like those used for making donations. These objects separate the pedestal seats that have been placed on both sides, which are supported by an elephant in the middle and two lions on the sides.

The female worshippers, which declare their homage while seated on lotus cushions, are once again presented at ornate, glorified deities. Trees with sun shades arise behind the goddesses as well as behind the Bodhisattva; deities floating in the clouds are also not lacking here.

It is certain [Moens disputes this conclusions -- editor] that the form in the center of the back wall is Avalokiteshvara, whereas we must consider whether the main images on the two side walls can be recognized by being Cunda, with the one representing her peaceful form as a protector and the other in her fearsome, demonic form, as the goddess of punishment. According to another conception proclaimed by Dr. Brandes, both of these images reflect the Taras of Avalokiteshvara, an idea that finds some support in the presence of the lotus pond at the bottom of the relief. One tale attributes the birth of Tara to a tear that the Bodhisattva shed on behalf of the world. After falling on the ground, the tear formed a pond out of which Tara arose on a lotus for the purpose of moderating human suffering.

Indeed it speaks for itself that the main characters of the sides can be narrowly linked with the one on the back wall to realize there the Taras and Avalokiteshvara; it is, however, also possible that one of these goddess figures was given the name Cunda. Indeed, in a similar manner the goddess is so named in the Buddhist art of India. Yet what reduces the extent of the matter, is the relative indifference of one or another denomination as to the name used; in any case one meant the Taras who act to clarify the being of the authorized Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara.

As previously mentioned, the eight side panels each contain a Bodhisattva standing on a pedestal, covered by a sun shade and equipped with a halo as well as other ornate decorations suitable for deities. Through small variations in their garments and jewels, they express alternations in identity that are further clarified by their possession of a certain attribute, which therefore proves to be the main means whereby the image may be identified. In each case presented here, the sculptor has assigned a particular, individual characteristic, rather than merely indicating the presence of a generic Bodhisattva character or some other deity in the general sense.  

They are thus identifiable with varying degrees of certainty. Those characters whose identities are more certain include Maitreya, who has a small stupa in his head ornament and a naga poeshpatak in one hand; Vajrapani with his vajra; and Mañjushri, who has a book on top of the oetpala (blue lotus). Concerning the remainder, an attempt can be ventured to stipulate their respective identities by presuming that their placement corresponds with the fixed directional details for the Eight Great Bodhisattvas that the Mahayana worshippers on Java enjoyed worshipping in particular, and that according to certain texts this Group of Eight contains pairs of characters that correspond with the regions of the four winds. In building a hypothesis based on this idea, for those at locations where the characteristics are not developed, we reach the conclusion that has been presented below, in a succession of images that is accordance with the pradakshina:

·          To the front, left of the portal is Sarvanivaranavishkambhin (B34); lying on top of the padma is a bulbous container with a flame;

·          On the northast side (B35): Maitreya with stupa as head ornament and a naga poeshpatak in one hand followed by Samantabhadra (B37), holding a branch that ends in three buds.

·          On the back-facade: Kshitigarbha holding a branch that ends in three jewels, and Vajrapani (B40) with his vajra.

·          On the southwest side: Mañjushri (B41) with a book on top of the oetpala (blue lotus) and Khagarbha (B43) with a sword standing on a padma.

·          To the right of the portal: Padmapani (B44) must have found here; however, this character has wholly disappeared.

A large cornice, among which is a frieze with flapping birds and garlands, covers the scenes. The usual antefixes -- those on the Mendut are all of the same type -- stand on this cornice as well as on the sub-basement and roof stories; this not only means that the final measurements vary from place to place, but also affects the development of the main motif, which varies each time depending on placement. The kala-makara ornament always ends in arabesques, and on the sides of the opposite-sitting stone lions, makaras are used therein.

The rejuvenating tiers of the roof, of which two are completely certain, repeat themselves in smaller-sized versions of the temple body, based on the same square ground plan with projections, the same heavy horizontal lines, the same profiling (except the hemisphere), and the same pilasters with kala-makara crowns and mails with recalcitrant spirals, as well as the same frieze band decoration, cornice and antefixes. In the middle of the projections the dominating horizontal line is interrupted in a harmonious manner by shallow, vaulted niches that contain no images, yet with the intension of entirely reviving through the presentation of its kala-makara framework. Around each roof tier there formerly stood bell-shaped decorations on lotus cushions, with larger ones aligned in the middle.

Therefore correct by the niche, which must have been worked in a particularly decorative context, and smaller moreover and on the angles, a sum of five between each of the two large ones on the first tier and three on the second. The first tier therefore had a total of twenty-four bell-shaped stupas and the second tier had sixteen. One presumes the existence of a third tier, in conformity with Candi Kalasan, as an octagon. While lacking the necessary blunt corner stones on the building itself or from the surrounding temple terrain for the construction of such an octagon, later it subsequently became clear by means of analogy with other temples that Mendut once had a third roof tier upon which eight small bell-shaped stupas formerly stood. The entire roof structure was rewarded by a great bell-stupa with lotus cushion at the apex, of which sufficient fragments have been retrieved to fix both its form and its dimensions.

Concerning the portal’s exterior, little remains. Occurring on the exterior sides in particular, is an elongated construction on its own foot, which the downstairs portion to the back is presented in the same manner as is found on the other facades of the forward-projecting foot of the body of the temples holds course. Once again it has its own profiling, which is in conformity with the profiling of the temple, yet on smaller scale. It also appears on the sides where it has been provided with a separate cube decoration, categorized according the sanctuary’s style, but here too with small deviations; here lies the mail with the recalcitrant spiral to the outside, which then follows the smooth pilaster and afterwards the ornamentation, which the makaras of the ordinary kala-makara ornament have positively carried.

The panel has been further decorated with human-like characters, and from the make up of the left-hand side this most likely consisted of three in relief. To either side at the front of the portal, there were two more figures, identical in ornamentation with the others, yet on account of the smaller space only filled with a single character in each case. These one can assume to have occupied the sides of the entranceway, which of course must have also presented the typical kala-makara framework, having a high looping arc to support the great monster head and heavy makaras having lions in their mouths. Concerning the portal’s front, however, nothing other than a few fragments remain. On the sides the space between the scenes on the constructed edifice has been completed and the projection of the temple itself is decorated with panes that contains patterns of hanging flowers.

The whole portal projects outward by approximately 3.60m. Its roof formerly rose in two rejuvenating tiers. In terms of ornamentation, these two tiers certainly remind us of the roof of the temple. However, the vestibule’s roof was not surmounted with bell-shaped stupa decorations, yet each of the temple-forming angles displayed a so-called turret, which we rightly note are also frequently found on the Diëng temples, rewarded by keben ornament. The same decoration, the turret with the keben-top, yet now of greater size, also formed the format of the middle-crown of the portal roof.

Nowdays, one can see that the portal has disappeared to a great extent. After the front of the temple had been cleared, a light gap was introduced in the restored forward wall above the entrance to the interior, as a result of which light invaded the temple chamber slightly. This is the notorious light-gap of the Mendut, which would have served to throw a spotlight onto  the head of the great Buddha image. We now know that the place for that opening was wrongfully made. Under no circumstances was a light hole originally put there, since the opening would have been notable within the portal roof. The answer is also most likely no, on the basis of the very inefficient functioning of the gap as an air ventilator.

The existence of this breach was derived from an old photograph, which also provided a reason for the assumption that on either side of the front still smaller light holes had originally been present. Concerning this question, to which a very unpalatable  polemic is linked, we shall not discuss in detail but rather notify the results of later research conducted   by T. Van Erp. In a convincing manner he has shown that in the first place the existence of two small window-boxes is at odds with the architectural set-up of the main body; as it happens, they would have fallen in the vertically correct profiling of the link under the large cornice, partly in the horizontal partition of the exterior temple body, and partially obstructed by the protective covering of the portal entranceway.

What concerns us about the large light hole that one sees in the old photograph, is an open space in the portal’s protective covering, which itself is right above the stretched beam of the door opening, where the breach was subsequently introduced. In that space above the stretched beam there may have once been a weight reliever, which is not certain, but remains probable; never intended to be an air or light hole, it can exclusively be characterized as a roof restraint, and a vaulted roof at that, which we found at Candi Bima and here also it was decided in favor of the stretched beam, which at Candi Bima has a free space of 1.50 m for relieving the overhead strain. The present light opening does not satisfy such a construction requirement for un-choking the roof. Therefore if a light gap opening was ever meant to be, then it must be looked for elsewhere.... 

During the restoration another discovery was made that is all the more important.... Within (Mendut’s) structure is situated an older, somewhat smaller, Mendut, about which a new covering was laid as if it were a mantel. The former roof, also of hard stone, was already so ever ready, only lacking the introduction of the decorative ornaments, but then gave way to other new ideals; (but) all the parts that were formerly there had to be removed -- including the cornice as well as the projecting bands -- to make way for the introduction of a new mantle.... When the discovery was made, that there was an old temple body buried concealed behind the new, the restoration of the cube was too far advanced to allow for a thorough examination and...a very serious modification of the project would have been necessary to see the transition from the old to the new situation on the vestiges of the portal. On the basement at least, the old form was found behind the new that displayed the same profiling; yet it is noteworthy that it was not built out of hard stone but rather out of red brick, excepting only the andesite foundations for the foot of the basement, (which were) undoubtedly placed there for the purpose of reducing water damage....   

We shall now take a look at the inside of the building. A doorway opening is 1.60 m wide and had a suspected height of approximately 2.50 m. The whole portal has a length of 6.50 m and a breadth of 2.15 m. As we said earlier, the portal’s kala-makara framework has disappeared; the actual entranceway lay somewhat deeper and it is also possible that the image of a god or goddess showed up in the area situated underneath the monster head....  At three steps into this portal, the floor rises by 75 cm above the exterior ambulatory. Right behind the entranceway on both sides, there are elongated panels within which rosette decorations have been introduced. Then the partition steps 48 cm to the outside, as a result of which niches that are 1.62 m broad are formed to either side, the backs of which are also filled with relief scenes presenting the so-called “wish-fulfillment tree” (Plate XVIII, bottom right), entirely styled out of blooming flowers, and from the tops of which seed necklaces hang down in garlands. At the foot are some pots with ingots present, he who came at first light standing amidst an abundance. Moreover, celestial servants kneel on each side. The tree is covered by a sun shade and kinnaras sit to either side amongst the highest branches. As the first presentation on both sides of the portal, they contract to the same main point, yet differ in such details as the objects in the hands of the kneeling individuals, as well as in terms of the flowers and offerings. Nevertheless, they express the the symmetry of Indian art, which is always on the lookout for uniformity. Above these panels, a band with flapping parrots in garlands was formerly present.

Beyond the two niches we find two rectangular panels on each side of the remaining portal partition, one above the another. Also presented on the facing right and left walls, and once again presenting a similar, but by no means the same, show. The lower panel on the right presents the realm of Kubera, the god of riches, surrounded by children. Or according to another conception, this panel represents the yaksa Pañchika or Atawika as the main character (Plate XIX). The lower panel on the left side of the walkway portrays his wife Hariti, who is also surrounded by groups of children, most of whom carry a half-moon decoration behind the head (Plate XIX).

In the panel to the right, Kubera is presented in the middle of the relief, with one leg depending from the seat, near where jewel pots stand; he wears a fabricated head ornament as befitting the savage Lord of the Yakshas. Two children are nearby his seat; the others are playing a game at the foot of a couple trees, whose fruit they try to seize. A couple of birds can also be seen flying in the air, which compares favorably with what is found in the panel opposite. There Hariti, goddess of fertility and protector of children has one child on her shoulder and a second sitting in her lap; the remaining youths are either romping around or climbing in the rijkbela fruit trees placed on both sides to enjoy the fruit, helped by a couple of others. A scale with fruit also stands at the feet of the goddess.

Both of these panels are therefore intended to portray scenes of fertility and wealth that display the granting of life-giving benedictions, which accompany visitor on their way to the holy of holies, to the place where they will encounter the proclamation of the salvation, the unsurpassed excellence above all earthly lands and heavens, which must always be one’s end aim.

The upper panels on either side the walkway each contain a set of four divinities floating on clouds, themselves moving in the direction of the temple chamber, together with aureoles, flowers, flags and standards (Plate XVIII, top and bottom left). One of the company carries a large jewel -- undoubtedly kept by the nagas -- the wish-accomplishing cintamani itself. Above this scene runs a band of double garlands and beyond that starts the roof stand. A band with a wavey-line between flower ornaments forms the commencement; the next band may have been broader having panels with flowers, each time with the greater contained between the smaller. The remainder of the portal’s protective covering is now gone.

A projecting stone casing concludes the back of the portal. From the present breaches it becomes clear that formerly there were double wooden doors here, supposedly swinging inward against the casing and allowing the temple chamber to be wholly closed off. Above this 1.92 m wide entranceway was supposedly a carving of the Buddhist Confession of Faith, a portion of which was discovered on the northern portal partition stone during the restoration.

By means of a staircase with two steps one descends into the inner temple chamber, which forms a trapezoidal structure with a back wall of 6.80 m, a fore-wall of 7.30 m; and two side walls that are both 6.85 m. At a height of 4.0 m, the roof vault begins its gradually transcendence, which occurs regularly thereafter and without any discontinuity. In the hindmost and largest part of the chamber, the floor is raised by 65 cm and is straddled by three standing pedestals, a great one in the middle and two smaller ones on the sides. On these are placed the temple’s three main images, with the Buddha sitting between two bodhisattvas....

The railing is of the usual type with sides on which is situated an elephant, followed by a standing lion and at the last the makara thrusts outward on both sides. A halo with a sharply looping form is attached behind the head of he who has saved the bodhisattvas... restored by means of comparison with the others. The master himself sits in the European fashion, with both legs hanging down...and keeps his hands in the dharmachakra-mudra. This disproportionately large image has been carved from a single stone measuring about 3 m.

The huge image, as well as both the others, are of a particularly fine trachyte type. By the Buddha one sees (a relief with) two deer located against the downstairs (portion of the throne) with a wheel between them; the ornament on these stones makes it probable that it belong at home here. Then as the master’s dharmachakra hand gesture indicates, the indicated preaching meant is none other than the very first sermon when he turned the “Wheel of the Doctrine” in the Deer Park in Benares. On both sides of the base behind the image a step is provided (that) was probably used to reach the Buddha with flowers, homage, laurels, and honors all the more easily.

The main image is clothed in a simple robe that hangs to the ankles, the right shoulder is bare the monk’s garment is allowed to lie on an ordinary flat cushion. The two bodhisattvas are covered in large robes and are seated with one leg depending onto a lotus cushion. Adornments befitting  the high stations of these figures have also been developed with the extreme care: head ornament and ear jewels, neck collar, arm and leg rings, as well as girdles. The bodhisattva on our left (the Buddha’s right-hand side) carries a broad band over his left shoulder instead of the caste cord. He keeps his right hand in vara-mudra, and the left in vitarka-mudra. Although he holds no attributes, it is nevertheless completely clear who is represented here. The Amitabha figurine in the tresses of a single head ornament proves beyond doubt that this is the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara.

On the other hand, the bodhisattva on our right (the Buddha’s left-hand side) wears a simple, realm-decorated tiara and has a caste cord formed of stones; he uses the left-hand for support and holds the right with the back facing down near the breast, thereby expressing the reasoning attitude. Despite the absence of attributes on does one suspect Maitreya or Mañjushri; a third character, Vajrapani, who also is often presented beside the Buddha, is never found without the vajra and therefore less probable to be found here.

To me it comes to the forefront that the greatest chance is that here we have Mañjushri and not just because he is a common spectator of the Master in Further-India. There is no conceivable reason, on the part of the sculptor, for not placing an attribute in the image’s hand if it had been required. If he wanted to place an attribute in the hands of a bodhisattva then he could have surely placed it as a counterpart for Amitabha-image attribute of Avalokiteshvara (across the way). Moreover, a small stupa would have been introduced into the head ornament if Maitreya was meant to be here, an emblem, for as far back as we can go, that even at the last never left such images on Java.

Finally, J. L. Moens has given a new esoteric declaration for the image work of the Mendut, both those inside the temple chamber as well as those on the outside walls. In addition, he also mentions the interior niches to show what must have been placed within. Without wanting to deny that this system can provide a solution, we think that the uncertainties are still too large, or brought into the argument by applying data borrowed from later sources to this sanctuary. The reader is referred to the article itself for more information (see the following chapter).

In the partitions of the temple chamber, six niches have been further introduced, one to the each side of the entrance and two in the first part of each of the side partitions. Measuring 1.18 m high, they are framed by a decorated pedestal stand with small pilasters to either side, and over-arched by a kala-makara motif. A lotus cushion lies within each niche; upon these cushions there is no trace of a shallow-channel track. It is therefore possible that no images ever rested here, with their intended occupants being lamps. That the chamber must have been artistically lighted, can be deduced from the fact the sanctuary doors had been capable of closing, in which case the entire interior would have been pitch-black dark. Even when these doors were opened, very little daylight would have been able to penetrate all the way down the deep portal.

A smooth, unadorned pilaster rises between the two niches on the side walls, rewarded by a square, upon which is a pentagonal upper-portion. Undoubtedly this was intended to be chiseled  last to become a lion’s head square for supporting something else; and also the ponderous pilaster between the decorated niches would have become still further ornamented. But as can be observed in the temple chamber, as well as sub-basement, the Mendut had never been finished entirely.

In the foregoing text we have already commented on the excellent architectonic and decorative principles that have been applied during the building of this sanctuary. From the descending description, however, it is possible to think that the decorations have been too excessively introduced to suit our taste. One does not receive this impression if one stands before the monument itself, where the decorative ornaments have a very small impact and therefore remain in the back-ground as compared with the image work, which from faraway is already clearly visible.

In every respect, and present both within and without, one finds the Mendut to express a fine feeling, however, one that speaks from nowhere in particular, and that, of course, was also the intention of the designers; it is what one finds, and is moved by, in the holy of holies. The image of the present savior and those of both of his helpers are genuine works of art, but no eye can possibly untie them from the idea that at the same time they are objects of the highest forms of worship. The sculptor, who was a master of the art, has been motivated above all by piety, which was what controlled his chisel. So these stately figures remain a dedication that continues to greet modern day visitors under such unfavorable circumstances, seizing them no less deeply than it did for the religious visitor of so long ago....       

The Mendut has not always stood on its own; it was formerly the chief sanctuary within a greater building group that was laid out in a rectangular area measuring 110m by 50m. This temple area was originally surrounded by brick ring wall, of which some traces elements have been found, which make it clear a double-walled partition formerly existed, completed with ground or coal dust, and resting on a broad footer....  

The entranceway to the Mendut temple, as well as the entranceways to the remaining temple foundations nearby, is directed towards the northwest, which is unusual; most of the (other Central Javanese) monuments are more or less oriented to face the east or west. For some plans, where traces of an accessway in the ring wall are found, it is on the southwest side. It is also striking that the small temple of Candi Pawon also has its entrance on the northwest side as well as an access-way to the temple square on the southwest side. Both construction works are located within 1150 m of each other, and when continuing along one straight line, one finds Borobudur 1750 m beyond Candi Pawon....

One should probably consider Pawon to be a small front temple for the Borobudur, due to the fact that it is located closer to the great stupa.... Above all, however, the Mendut should be considered to be a very desirable supplement for the Borobudur. On the stupa one sees many images of Dhyani-Buddhas and one finds all kinds of texts presented, which are dedicated to the former lives of the historical Buddha, to the course of his final existence from its opening first act to his expression of the quality of Buddhahood, and to the Bodhisattvas as well, which for their part have the task of taking over for their teacher. But as to having a large and worshipful image of the Master himself, who is a distant personage as it were of the salvation doctrine proclaimed by him there, one will not find it at the Borobudur.

Among the pious there must be a need for having the opportunity to worship at the feet of the Buddha as the means for honoring the ideal made visible. To that end the Mendut well satisfied. The deeper significance of the great stupa, the main sanctuary of the Javanese Mahayana, must have only been somewhat clearly developed; only in the Mendut could the religious masses have the experience of standing face-to-face compared with the Liberator. The Borobudur represents the Buddhism of the Great Vehicle, summarized in one awesome monument, while the Mendut is the temple of the Buddha, of the Redeemer himself, to which it already remains here subordinate.

(Adapted from Inleiding tot de Hindoe-Javaansche Kunst (Introduction to Hindu-Javanese Art)

Literary Sources (In chronological order)

Inventories no. 826, 835, 837, 838, 868, 885 en 889;

“Nieuw-opgegraven Oudheden in de Residentie Kadoe,” Tijdschr. v. Neêrl. Indie I, 2 (1838) p. 70-73;

Buddingh, Djandi Mundut in 1839, ibidem p. 398-407;

Hoepermans, “Hindoe-oudheden van Java” (1864), Rapp. 1913 p. 120-129, 136 sq., 140 sq., 147;

Wilsen, De Boeddhistische Triemoerti op Java voorgesteld in den tempel te Mendoet, Tijdschr. Bat. Gen. 20 (1873) 166-191;

Brandes in Not. Bat. Gen. 1898 p. 83 sq. (Kanggan);

Van Aalst. Oneaven omtrent verschillende Hindoe-oudheden, voorkomende in de Contrôle-afdeeling Prabalingga, Tijdschr. Bat. Gen. 41 (1899) pp. 401-404, 406, 411 sq., 414;

Brandes in Not. Bat. Gen. 1901 p. 24 (Banon, cf. 58) and pp. 141 -143;

Brandes, “De hoofdbeelden op de voorsprongen van den teerling der Tjandi Mendoet,” Not. Bat. Gen. 1902, Bijl. XIII;

Brandes, “Nadere mededeelingen over de Tjandi Mendoet,” Not. Bat. Gen. 1902, Bijl. XV;

Brandes. in Rapp. 1902 pp. 6-8 en plaat 23;

Kersjes en Den Hamer, De Tjandi Mëndoet voor de restauratie (1903);

Brandes in Not. Bat. Gen. 1903 p. 75-89;

Brandes in Rapp. 1903 p. 64 and plates 46-58;

Vogel, “Le Kubera du Candi Méndut,” Bull. Ec. franc. d’Extr. Or. 4 (1904) pp. 727-730;

Brandes, “De troon van de hoofdkamer van den hoofdtempel van het Tjandi-Sèwoe-complex, vergeleken met de tronen in de Tjandi Mendoet en de Tjandi Kalibennning of Kalasan,” Rapp. 1904 pp. 159-170 and plates 64, 68 en 69;

Knebel in Rapp. 1905 pp. 14-17 and plates 79-84;

Foucher, “Notes d’archéologie bouddhique,” Bull. Ec. franc. d’Extr. Or. 9 (1909) pp. 45-47;

Van Erp in Twentieth Century Impressions of Netherlands India (1909) pp. 143-149 and 157;

Van Erp, “Tjandi Mendoet,” Tijdschr. Bat. Gen. 51 (1909) p. 477-493;

Van Erp, “Het lichtgat in den voorwand van Tjandi Mendoet,” Tijdschr. Bat. Gen. 52 (1910) p. 109-122;

Van Erp, “Oudheidkundige Aanteekeningen I. De onderlinge ligging van Borobudur, Méndut en Pawon en hunne orienteering,” Tijdschr. Bat. Gen. 53 (1911) pp. 582-585;

Knebel, “Beschrijving der Hindoe-oudheden in de residentie Kedoe,” Rapp. 1911 p. 203-205, 207-209, 223-229, 240 and plates 182-184;

Van Erp, “Tjandi Ngawèn,” Rapp. 1911, pp. 62-73 and plates 171-179;

Brandes, “Fout of finesse?” Rapp. 1913, pp. 24-34 and plates 10 and 11;

“De Bodhisattva’s van den Mendut,” Bijdr. Kon. Inst. 74 (1918), pp. 419-437;

With, Java (1920) p. 74 sq. And elsewhere;    

Lulius van Groor, “De Kuwera in het voorportaal van Tjandi Mendoet,” Hand. Eerste Congr. Taal-, Land-, Volkenk. v. Java (1921) p. 325-348;

Moens, “De Tjandi Mendut,” Tijdschr. Bat. Gen. 59 (1921), p. 529-600.

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